ツングース祖語
Proto-Tungusic
Tungusic (proto)
Proto-Tungusic is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Tungusic language family, which includes Manchu, Jurchen, Sibe, Evenki, Even, Nanai, Udege, Oroch, Orok, and Ulch. Spoken roughly around 2000 BCE in the Amur basin and surrounding Manchurian and southeastern Siberian regions, it later diversified into the Northern (Evenkic) and Southern (Manchu-Nanai) branches. Reconstructions are based on systematic comparison of attested daughter languages, with major scholarly contributions from Tsintsius (1975-77), Doerfer (2006), and Janhunen (2003). Phonologically, Proto-Tungusic featured vowel harmony, a contrast between plain and long vowels, and a relatively rich consonant inventory including the velar nasal *ŋ. Lexical reconstructions for numerals (*əmun, *dʒuər, *ilan), body parts (*ŋāla 'hand', *jāsa 'eye'), and natural elements (*mū 'water', *tōga 'fire') are well established, while fauna terms vary by branch.
Where it is spoken
Han character readings in Proto-Tungusic
| Character | Meaning | Reading | Form | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 一 | one | *əmun | /*əmun/ | |
| 二 | two | *dʒuər | /*dʒuər/ | |
| 三 | three | *ilan | /*ilan/ | |
| 四 | four | *dügin | /*dyɡin/ | |
| 五 | five | *tuɲga | /*tuɲɡa/ | |
| 六 | six | *ɲuŋun | /*ɲuŋun/ | |
| 七 | seven | *nadan | /*nadan/ | |
| 八 | eight | *dʒapkun | /*dʒapkun/ | |
| 九 | nine | *xəgün | /*xəɡyn/ | |
| 十 | ten | *dʒuwan | /*dʒuwan/ | |
| 天 | sky | *abka | /*abka/ | |
| 地 | ground | *na | /*na/ | |
| 日 | sun | *siun | /*siun/ | |
| 月 | moon | *bēga | /*beːɡa/ | |
| 山 | mountain | *xada | /*xada/ | |
| 海 | sea | *lāmu | /*laːmu/ | |
| 水 | water | *mū | /*muː/ | |
| 火 | fire | *tōga | /*toːɡa/ | |
| 木 | tree | *mō | /*moː/ | |
| 土 | soil | *na | /*na/ | |
| 石 | stone | *dʒola | /*dʒola/ | |
| 鐵 | iron | *sele | /*sele/ | |
| 雨 | rain | *tügde | /*tyɡde/ | |
| 雪 | snow | *ximansa | /*ximansa/ | |
| 牛 | ox | *xuker | /*xuker/ | |
| 龍 | dragon | *muduri | /*muduri/ | |
| 蛇 | snake | *müikī | /*myikiː/ | |
| 馬 | horse | *murin | /*murin/ | |
| 雞 | chicken | *tiaku | /*tiaku/ | |
| 犬 | dog | *ŋinda | /*ŋinda/ | |
| 豬 | pig | *ulgian | /*ulɡian/ | |
| 鳥 | bird | *gasa | /*ɡasa/ | |
| 魚 | fish | *nimaka | /*nimaka/ | |
| 頭 | head | *dil | /*dil/ | |
| 目 | eye | *jāsa | /*jaːsa/ | |
| 耳 | ear | *sēn | /*seːn/ | |
| 口 | mouth | *amŋa | /*amŋa/ | |
| 牙 | tooth | *xǖkte | /*xyːkte/ | |
| 心 | heart | *mēwan | /*meːwan/ | |
| 手 | hand | *ŋāla | /*ŋaːla/ | |
| 足 | foot | *bəgdi | /*bəɡdi/ | |
| 血 | blood | *sēksə | /*seːksə/ | |
| 肉 | meat | *uldʒə | /*uldʒə/ | |
| 人 | person | *niama | /*niama/ | |
| 家 | home, family | *dʒūg | /*dʒuːɡ/ | |
| 門 | door, gate | *örke | /*œrke/ | |
| 年 | year | *aniganī | /*aniɡaniː/ | |
| 生 | live, be born | *baldi- | /*baldi-/ | |
| 行 | go | *jabu- | /*jabu-/ | |
| 行 | row | *ŋənə- | /*ŋənə-/ | |
| 来 | come | *əmə- | /*əmə-/ | |
| 去 | leave | *ŋənə- | /*ŋənə-/ | |
| 走 | run | *tuksa- | /*tuksa-/ | |
| 坐 | sit | *təgə- | /*təɡə-/ | |
| 立 | stand | *ili- | /*ili-/ | |
| 見 | see | *ičə- | /*itʃə-/ | |
| 聞 | hear | *dōldi- | /*doːldi-/ | |
| 食 | eat | *dʒəp- | /*dʒəp-/ | |
| 飲 | drink | *umī- | /*umiː-/ | |
| 黑 | black | *sakalīn | /*sakaliːn/ | |
| 紅 | red | *pula | /*pula/ | |
| 綠 | green | *ɲoŋa | /*ɲoŋa/ | |
| 大 | big | *amban | /*amban/ | |
| 多 | many, much | *geren | /*ɡeren/ | |
| 長 | long | *ŋōlimi | /*ŋoːlimi/ | |
| 老 | old | *sagdV | /*saɡdV/ | |
| 遠 | far | *gora | /*ɡora/ | |
| 上 | up | *ugi | /*uɡi/ | |
| 下 | down | *xərgi | /*xərɡi/ | |
| 左 | left | *dʒəgün | /*dʒəɡyn/ | |
| 右 | right | *aŋān | /*aŋaːn/ | |
| 中 | middle | *dulin | /*dulin/ | |
| 中 | hit | *dulin | /*dulin/ | |
| 央 | center | *dulin | /*dulin/ | |
| 東 | east | *dʒügün | /*dʒyɡyn/ | |
| 我 | I, me | *bi | /*bi/ | |
| 你 | you | *si | /*si/ | |
| 有 | have; there is | *bi- | /*bi-/ | |
| 不 | not | *e- | /*e-/ |
Sources
- Tsintsius 1975
- Doerfer 2006
- Janhunen 2003
Han readings compared
Compared with languages in the same classification: Tungusic (proto)
| Character | Proto-Tungusic | Jurchen | Proto-Mongolic | Manchu | Sibe | Proto-Japonic | Proto-Koreanic |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 一 | *əmun /*əmun/ | emu /emu/ | *nigen /*niɡen/ | emu /emu/ | emu /əmu/ | *pitə-tu /*pitə-tu/ | *hʌtan /*hʌtan/ |
| 二 | *dʒuər /*dʒuər/ | juwe /dʑuwe/ | *qoyar /*qojar/ | juwe /dʒuwə/ | juwe /dʑuwə/ | *puta /*puta/ | *tupɨr /*tupɨɾ/ |
| 三 | *ilan /*ilan/ | ilan /ilan/ | *gurba(n) /*ɡurban/ | ilan /ilan/ | ilan /ilan/ | *mi /*mi/ | *seki /*seki/ |
| 四 | *dügin /*dyɡin/ | duin /duin/ | *dörbe(n) /*dœrben/ | duin /duin/ | duin /duin/ | *jə /*jə/ | *neki /*neki/ |
| 五 | *tuɲga /*tuɲɡa/ | sunja /sundʑa/ | *tabu(n) /*tabun/ | sunja /sundʒa/ | sunja /sundʑa/ | *itu /*itu/ | *tasəs /*tasəs/ |
| 六 | *ɲuŋun /*ɲuŋun/ | ninggun /niŋɡun/ | *jirguɣa(n) /*dʒirɣuɣan/ | ninggun /niŋɡun/ | ninggun /niŋɢun/ | *mu /*mu/ | *jəsəs /*jəsəs/ |
| 七 | *nadan /*nadan/ | nadan /nadan/ | *doluɣa(n) /*doluɣan/ | nadan /nadan/ | nadan /nadan/ | *nana /*nana/ | *nirkup /*niɾkup/ |
| 八 | *dʒapkun /*dʒapkun/ | jakūn /dʑakɯn/ | *nayima(n) /*najiman/ | jakūn /dʒakʰuːn/ | jakūn /dʑakɯn/ | *ja /*ja/ | *jətərp /*jətəɾp/ |
| 九 | *xəgün /*xəɡyn/ | uyun /ujun/ | *yersü(n) /*jersyn/ | uyun /ujun/ | uyun /ujun/ | *kəkənə /*kəkənə/ | *ahop /*ahop/ |
| 十 | *dʒuwan /*dʒuwan/ | juwan /dʑuwan/ | *harba(n) /*harban/ | juwan /dʒuwan/ | juwan /dʑuwan/ | *təwə /*təwə/ | *jer /*jeɾ/ |
| 天 | *abka /*abka/ | abka /abka/ | *teŋri /*teŋri/ | abka /abka/ | abka /apka/ | *ama /*ama/ | *hanʌr /*hanʌɾ/ |
| 地 | *na /*na/ | na /na/ | *gajar /*ɡadʒar/ | na /na/ | na /na/ | — | *tʌh /*tʌh/ |
| 日 | *siun /*siun/ | šun /ʃun/ | *naran /*naran/ | šun /ʃun/ | šun /ɕun/ | *pi /*pi/ | *hʌy /*hʌj/ |
| 月 | *bēga /*beːɡa/ | biya /bija/ | *sara(n) /*saran/ | biya /bija/ | biya /bija/ | *tukuy /*tukui/ | *tʌr /*tʌɾ/ |
| 山 | *xada /*xada/ | alin /alin/ | *agula /*aɣula/ | alin /alin/ | alin /alin/ | *jama /*jama/ | *moy /*moj/ |
| 海 | *lāmu /*laːmu/ | mederi /mederi/ | *dalai /*dalaj/ | mederi /medəri/ | mederi /mədəri/ | *umi /*umi/ | *parʌr /*paɾʌɾ/ |
| 水 | *mū /*muː/ | muke /muke/ | *usu(n) /*usun/ | muke /mukə/ | muke /mutɕə/ | *mintu /*mintu/ | *mɨr /*mɨɾ/ |
| 火 | *tōga /*toːɡa/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | *gal /*ɡal/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | tuwa /tuwa/ | *poy /*poi/ | *pɨr /*pɨɾ/ |
| 木 | *mō /*moː/ | moo /moː/ | *modu(n) /*modun/ | moo /moː/ | moo /mɔː/ | *kəy /*kəi/ | *namk /*namk/ |
| 土 | *na /*na/ | boihon /boixon/ | *sirui /*siruj/ | boihon /bojxon/ | boihon /bɔiʁɔn/ | *tuti /*tuti/ | *hʌrk /*hʌɾk/ |
| 石 | *dʒola /*dʒola/ | — | *cilaxun /*tʃilaxun/ | wehe /wəxə/ | — | *isoi /*isoi/ | — |
| 鐵 | *sele /*sele/ | sele /sələ/ | *temür /*temyr/ | sele /sələ/ | — | — | — |
| 雨 | *tügde /*tyɡde/ | — | — | aga /aɡa/ | — | — | — |
| 雪 | *ximansa /*ximansa/ | imanggi /imaŋɡi/ | *casun /*tʃasun/ | nimanggi /nimaŋɡi/ | — | *joki /*joki/ | — |
| 牛 | *xuker /*xuker/ | ihan /ixan/ | *hüker /*hyker/ | ihan /ixan/ | ihan /iʁan/ | *usi /*usi/ | *sjo /*sjo/ |
| 龍 | *muduri /*muduri/ | muduri /muduri/ | — | muduri /muduri/ | muduri /muduri/ | — | *mir /*miɾ/ |
| 蛇 | *müikī /*myikiː/ | meihe /meixe/ | *mogai /*moɣaj/ | meihe /məixə/ | meihe /məix/ | — | — |
| 馬 | *murin /*murin/ | morin /morin/ | *mori(n) /*morin/ | morin /morin/ | morin /mɔrin/ | *uma /*uma/ | — |
| 雞 | *tiaku /*tiaku/ | — | *takixa /*takixa/ | coko /tʃoko/ | — | — | — |
| 犬 | *ŋinda /*ŋinda/ | indahūn /indaxɯn/ | *noxai /*noxaj/ | indahūn /indaxuːn/ | indahūn /indaʁun/ | *enu /*enu/ | *kahi /*kahi/ |
| 豬 | *ulgian /*ulɡian/ | ulgiyan /ulɡijan/ | *gakai /*ɡakaj/ | ulgiyan /ulɡijan/ | — | — | — |
| 鳥 | *gasa /*ɡasa/ | gasha /ɡaʃa/ | *sibawun /*sibaʊn/ | gasha /ɡaʃa/ | gasha /ɢaɕa/ | *təri /*təri/ | *say /*saj/ |
| 魚 | *nimaka /*nimaka/ | nimaha /nimaxa/ | *jigasu(n) /*dʒiɣasun/ | nimaha /nimaxa/ | nimaha /nimaʁa/ | *iwo /*iwo/ | *koki /*koki/ |
| 頭 | *dil /*dil/ | uju /udʑu/ | *terixün /*terixyn/ | uju /udʒu/ | uju /udʑu/ | *kasira /*kasira/ | *məri /*məɾi/ |
| 目 | *jāsa /*jaːsa/ | yasa /jasa/ | *nidün /*nidyn/ | yasa /jasa/ | yasa /jaza/ | *ma /*ma/ | *nun /*nun/ |
| 耳 | *sēn /*seːn/ | šan /ʃan/ | *cikin /*tʃikin/ | šan /ʃan/ | šan /ɕan/ | *mimi /*mimi/ | *kuy /*kuj/ |
| 口 | *amŋa /*amŋa/ | angga /aŋɡa/ | *aman /*aman/ | angga /aŋɡa/ | angga /aŋɢa/ | *kutuy /*kutui/ | *ip /*ip/ |
| 牙 | *xǖkte /*xyːkte/ | weihe /weixe/ | *sidün /*sidyn/ | weihe /wəixə/ | — | *pa /*pa/ | — |
| 心 | *mēwan /*meːwan/ | niyaman /niaman/ | *jirüken /*dʒiryken/ | niyaman /njaman/ | niyaman /ɲaman/ | *kəkərə /*kəkərə/ | *mʌzʌm /*mʌzʌm/ |
| 手 | *ŋāla /*ŋaːla/ | gala /ɡala/ | *gar /*ɡar/ | gala /ɡala/ | gala /ɢala/ | *ta /*ta/ | *son /*son/ |
| 足 | *bəgdi /*bəɡdi/ | bethe /betxe/ | *köl /*kœl/ | bethe /bətxə/ | bethe /bətxə/ | *asi /*asi/ | *par /*paɾ/ |
| 血 | *sēksə /*seːksə/ | senggi /səŋɡi/ | *cisu(n) /*tʃisun/ | senggi /səŋɡi/ | senggi /səŋɣi/ | *ti /*ti/ | *pih /*pih/ |
| 肉 | *uldʒə /*uldʒə/ | yali /jali/ | *mika(n) /*mikan/ | yali /jali/ | yali /jali/ | *sisi /*sisi/ | *salh /*salh/ |
| 人 | *niama /*niama/ | niyalma /njalma/ | *kümün /*kymyn/ | niyalma /njalma/ | niyalma /ɲalma/ | *pitə /*pitə/ | *salʌm /*salʌm/ |
| 家 | *dʒūg /*dʒuːɡ/ | — | — | boo /boː/ | — | *ja /*ja/ | — |
| 門 | *örke /*œrke/ | uce /utɕe/ | *exüden /*exyden/ | duka /duka/ | — | *to /*to/ | — |
| 年 | *aniganī /*aniɡaniː/ | aniya /anja/ | *hon /*hon/ | aniya /anja/ | aniya /anʲ/ | *təsi /*təsi/ | — |
| 生 | *baldi- /*baldi-/ | banji- /bandʑi-/ | *töre- /*tœre-/ | banjimbi /bandʒimbi/ | — | *nar- /*nar-/ | — |
| 行 | *jabu- /*jabu-/ | yabu- /jabu-/ | *yabu- /*jabu-/ | yabumbi /jabumbi/ | yabumbi /jawum/ | *ik- /*ik-/ | *ka- /*ka-/ |
| 行 | *ŋənə- /*ŋənə-/ | — | *yabu- /*jabu-/ | faidan /faidan/ | faidan /faidan/ | *okonap- /*okonap-/ | *hʌ- /*hʌ-/ |
| 来 | *əmə- /*əmə-/ | ji- /dʑi-/ | *ire- /*ire-/ | jimbi /dʒimbi/ | jimbi /dʑim/ | *kə- /*kə-/ | *o- /*o-/ |
| 去 | *ŋənə- /*ŋənə-/ | gene- /ɡənə-/ | *od- /*od-/ | genembi /ɡənəmbi/ | genembi /ɡənəm/ | — | *ka- /*ka-/ |
| 走 | *tuksa- /*tuksa-/ | suju- /sudʑu-/ | *güyü- /*ɡyjy-/ | sujumbi /sudʒumbi/ | sujumbi /sudʑum/ | *pasir- /*pasir-/ | *tʌt- /*tʌt-/ |
| 坐 | *təgə- /*təɡə-/ | te- /te-/ | *saxu- /*saxu-/ | tembi /təmbi/ | tembi /təm/ | *wo- /*wo-/ | *anc- /*ants-/ |
| 立 | *ili- /*ili-/ | ili- /ili-/ | *bos- /*bos-/ | ilimbi /ilimbi/ | ilimbi /ilim/ | *tat- /*tat-/ | *se- /*se-/ |
| 見 | *ičə- /*itʃə-/ | sabu- /sabu-/ | *üje- /*ydʒe-/ | sabumbi /sabumbi/ | sabumbi /sabum/ | *mi- /*mi-/ | *po- /*po-/ |
| 聞 | *dōldi- /*doːldi-/ | donji- /dondʑi-/ | *sonos- /*sonos-/ | donjimbi /dondʒimbi/ | donjimbi /dɔndʑim/ | *kik- /*kik-/ | *tɨr- /*tɨɾ-/ |
| 食 | *dʒəp- /*dʒəp-/ | je- /dʑe-/ | *ide- /*ide-/ | jembi /dʒəmbi/ | jembi /dʑəm/ | *kup- /*kup-/ | *mək- /*mək-/ |
| 飲 | *umī- /*umiː-/ | omi- /omi-/ | *uxu- /*uxu-/ | omimbi /omimbi/ | omimbi /ɔmim/ | *nəm- /*nəm-/ | *mas- /*mas-/ |
| 黑 | *sakalīn /*sakaliːn/ | sahaliyan /saxalijan/ | *kara /*kara/ | sahaliyan /saxalijan/ | — | *kuro /*kuro/ | — |
| 紅 | *pula /*pula/ | fulgiyan /fulɡijan/ | *hulaxan /*hulaxan/ | fulgiyan /fulɡijan/ | — | — | — |
| 綠 | *ɲoŋa /*ɲoŋa/ | — | *noguxan /*noɣuxan/ | niowanggiyan /niowaŋɡijan/ | — | — | — |
| 大 | *amban /*amban/ | amba /amba/ | *yeke /*jeke/ | amba /amba/ | — | — | — |
| 多 | *geren /*ɡeren/ | — | *olan /*olan/ | labdu /labdu/ | — | *əpə /*əpə/ | — |
| 長 | *ŋōlimi /*ŋoːlimi/ | golmin /ɡolmin/ | *urtu /*urtu/ | golmin /ɡolmin/ | golmin /ɢɔlmin/ | *nanka /*nanka/ | — |
| 老 | *sagdV /*saɡdV/ | — | — | sakda /sakda/ | — | — | — |
| 遠 | *gora /*ɡora/ | — | *kola /*kola/ | goro /ɡoro/ | — | *təpə /*təpə/ | — |
| 上 | *ugi /*uɡi/ | dele /dələ/ | *degere /*deɡere/ | dele /dələ/ | dele /dələ/ | *upəy /*upəi/ | *uh /*uh/ |
| 下 | *xərgi /*xərɡi/ | fejile /fəjilə/ | *doxora /*doxora/ | fejile /fədʒilə/ | fejile /fədʑilə/ | *sita /*sita/ | *arʌy /*aɾʌj/ |
| 左 | *dʒəgün /*dʒəɡyn/ | hashū /haʃɯ/ | *jegün /*dʒeɡyn/ | hashū /xaʃuː/ | hashū /χaɕu/ | *pintari /*pintari/ | *oyn /*ojn/ |
| 右 | *aŋān /*aŋaːn/ | ici /itɕi/ | *baragun /*baraɣun/ | ici /itʃi/ | ici /itɕi/ | *minkiri /*minkiri/ | *parʌn /*paɾʌn/ |
| 中 | *dulin /*dulin/ | dulin /dulin/ | *dumda /*dumda/ | dulimba /dulimba/ | dulimba /dulimba/ | *naka /*naka/ | *kawɨn /*kawɨn/ |
| 中 | *dulin /*dulin/ | — | *dumda /*dumda/ | goibumbi /ɡoibumbi/ | goibumbi /ɢɔibum/ | *atar- /*atar-/ | *mac- /*mats-/ |
| 央 | *dulin /*dulin/ | dulimbai /dulimbai/ | — | dulimbai /dulimbai/ | dulimbai /dulimbai/ | — | — |
| 東 | *dʒügün /*dʒyɡyn/ | dergi /dərɡi/ | *jegün /*dʒeɡyn/ | dergi /dərɡi/ | dergi /dərɡi/ | *pinkasi /*pinkasi/ | — |
| 我 | *bi /*bi/ | bi /bi/ | *bi /*bi/ | bi /bi/ | — | — | — |
| 你 | *si /*si/ | ši /ʃi/ | *ci /*tʃi/ | si /si/ | — | — | — |
| 有 | *bi- /*bi-/ | bi- /bi-/ | — | bimbi /bimbi/ | — | *ar- /*ar-/ | — |
| 不 | *e- /*e-/ | — | *ese /*ese/ | akū /akuː/ | — | *na /*na/ | — |
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