Xapagí
Pirahã
Mura (isolate)
Pirahã is famous in linguistics for its extreme typological features: no embedded clauses, no exact numerals (only 'small' vs 'larger' amounts), no colour terms, no perfect-tense distinction, and minimal kinship vocabulary. Spoken by about 250 hunter-gatherers along the Maici river, a tributary of the Amazon, Pirahã has been the subject of major debates over Universal Grammar after Daniel Everett's analyses challenged Chomskyan recursion claims and stirred years of fieldwork response.
Where it is spoken
87 core words in Pirahã
Sources
- Everett, Daniel L. 1983, A Língua Pirahã e a Teoria da Sintaxe (PhD thesis, UNICAMP), Pirahã wordlist in the practical orthography as given in Johansson, Niklas Erben et al. 2020 sound-symbolism dataset (lexibank/johanssonsoundsymbolic, source everett1983a); ASJP PIRAHA (Sheldon) for confirmation
Words compared
Compared with languages in the same classification: Mura (isolate)
| Meaning | Pirahã | Yuchi | Proto-Mayan | Coyutla Totonac | Makasae | Neko | Etruscan |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water | pií /pií/ | tse /tse/ | *haʔ /haʔ/ | chúchut /tʃútʃut/ | ira /ˈira/ | wai /wai/ | — /—/ |
| Fire | hoaí /hoaí/ | ʼyati /ʔjati/ | *qʼaaqʼ /qʼaaqʼ/ | lhkúyat /ɬkújat/ | ata /ˈata/ | titɛ /titɛ/ | — /—/ |
| Sun | hisí /hisí/ | tso /tso/ | *qʼiinh /qʼiinh/ | chichiní /tʃitʃiní/ | watu /ˈwatu/ | aatʌ /aːtʌ/ | usil /ˈuzil/ |
| Moon | kaháíxáii /kaháíʔáii/ | shafa /ʃafa/ | *uːh /uːh/ | papá /papá/ | uru /ˈuru/ | — /—/ | tiur /ˈtiur/ |
| Star | — /—/ | weʼyv /weʔjʌ̃/ | *eʼq /eʼq/ | staku /staku/ | lekiluru /lekiluru/ | kumba /kumba/ | — /—/ |
| Night | xahoái /ʔahoái/ | pado /pado/ | *aqʼabʼ /aqʼaɓ/ | tsisni /tsisni/ | maagamu /maaɡamu/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Rain | pii /pii/ | — | *nhabʼ /ŋaɓ/ | sin /sin/ | ae /ae/ | wai /wai/ | — |
| Wind | xohói /ʔohói/ | — | *ʔiʔqʼ /ʔiʔqʼ/ | un /ʔun/ | gawa /ˈɡawa/ | — | — |
| Earth | bigí /biɡí/ | — | *chʼohchʼ /tʃʼohtʃʼ/ | tiyat /tijat/ | maa /maa/ | — | — |
| Stone | xaxái /ʔaʔái/ | — | *ʔaʔbʼaj /ʔaʔbʼaj/ | chiwix /tʃiwiʃ/ | apa /ˈapa/ | — | — |
| Sea | piigiotigai /piiɡiotiɡai/ | — | — | pupunú /pupunú/ | meti /meti/ | — | — |
| Mother | baíxi /baíʔi/ | ditsehæ /ditsehæ/ | *naʔ /naʔ/ | tzí /tsí/ | ina /ˈina/ | — /—/ | ati /ˈati/ |
| Father | baíxi /baíʔi/ | dzetʼe /dzetʼe/ | *taat /taat/ | tlat /tɬat/ | baba /ˈbaba/ | — /—/ | apa /ˈapa/ |
| Daughter | hoísai /hoísai/ | — | — | tsumát /tsuˈmat/ | — | — | sech /sekʰ/ |
| I | ti /ti/ | di /di/ | *in /in/ | akit /akit/ | ani /ani/ | na /na/ | mi /mi/ |
| You | gixai /ɡiʔai/ | tse /tse/ | *ʔat /ʔat/ | wix /wiʃ/ | ai /ai/ | ga /ɡa/ | — /—/ |
| We | tiatiso /tiatiso/ | ʼõdi / nõdi /ʔõdi / nõdi/ | — /—/ | akinín /akinín/ | fi / ini /fi / ini/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Name | karí /karí/ | tiʼe /tiʔe/ | *bʼih /bʼih/ | takuwiní /takuwiní/ | nai /nai/ | iwi /iwi/ | — /—/ |
| Head | xapapai /ʔapapai/ | — | — | akgxakga /aqʃaqa/ | dae /dae/ | pit /pit/ | — |
| Eye | kosi /kosi/ | gochi /ɡotʃʰi/ | *Haty /hatʲ/ | lakgastapu /laqastapu/ | nana /ˈnana/ | ta /ta/ | — /—/ |
| Ear | xáooí /ʔáooí/ | — | *xikin /ʃikin/ | takgén /taqén/ | walaku /waˈlaku/ | asipi /asipi/ | — |
| Nose | xitaoí /ʔitaoí/ | — | *nhiiʔ /ŋiːʔ/ | — | murikai /murikai/ | ura /ura/ | — |
| Mouth | kao /kao/ | — | *tyiiʔ /tʲiːʔ/ | kilhni /kiɬni/ | turukai /turuˈkai/ | mak /mak/ | — |
| Tooth | aitoi /aitoi/ | kẽ /kẽ/ | *ʔeeh /ʔeːh/ | tatsan /tatsan/ | wasi /wasi/ | maati /maːti/ | — /—/ |
| Tongue | ipopai /ipopai/ | kʼẽka /kʼẽka/ | *aaqʼ /aːqʼ/ | simakgat /simaqat/ | ipi /ipi/ | melepi /mɛlepi/ | — /—/ |
| Hand | xoái /ʔoái/ | weʼothæ /weʔotʰæ/ | *qʼabʼ /qʼabʼ/ | makán /makán/ | tana /ˈtana/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Foot | xaaí /ʔaaí/ | wedithæ /weditʰæ/ | *ʔooq /ʔoːq/ | tantún /tantún/ | iti /ˈiti/ | tar /tar/ | — |
| Heart | — /—/ | wethæ /wetʰæ/ | — /—/ | naku /naku/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Bone | xaí /ʔaí/ | weshʼe /weʃʼe/ | *bʼaaq /ɓaːq/ | lukut /lukut/ | sapa /ˈsapa/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Blood | biipai /biipai/ | wi /wi/ | *kikʼ /kikʼ/ | kgalhni /qaɬni/ | wai /wai/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Love | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Tree | xií /ʔií/ | ʼya /ʔja/ | *teʔ /teʔ/ | kiwi /kiwi/ | ate /ˈate/ | tei /tei/ | — /—/ |
| Dog | giopaíxi /ɡiopaíʔi/ | dzene /dzene/ | *tzʼiʔ /tzʼiʔ/ | chichi /tʃitʃi/ | defa /ˈdɛfa/ | gonʌ /ɡonʌ/ | — /—/ |
| Cat | xowí /ʔowí/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | mishtu /miʃtu/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Fish | tíxisi /tíʔisi/ | shu /ʃu/ | *kar /kar/ | skiti /skiti/ | seumeti /seumeti/ | nom /nom/ | — /—/ |
| Bird | piibigi /piibiɡi/ | — | *tzʼikin /tzʼikin/ | spun /spun/ | asa /ˈasa/ | nuŋ /nuŋ/ | — |
| Butterfly | sibíoí /sibíoí/ | — | *pehpen /pehpen/ | — | — | — | — |
| Egg | sitoí /sitoí/ | — | — | kálhwat /káɬwat/ | waa /waa/ | — | — |
| House | kaiíi /kaiíi/ | yufa /jufa/ | *nah /nah/ | chiki /tʃiki/ | oma /ˈoma/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Milk | xíbogi /ʔíboɡi/ | — | — | leche /letʃe/ | amirae /amiˈrae/ | — | — |
| Honey | xaáhái /ʔaáhái/ | — | *kaabʼ /kaːɓ/ | táxkat /táʃkat/ | — | — | — |
| Rice | xahóikasí /ʔahóikasí/ | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Eat | xohoái /ʔohoái/ | gothlæ /ɡoɬæ/ | *waʔ /waʔ/ | wayán /waján/ | nawa /ˈnawa/ | nei /nei/ | — /—/ |
| Drink | gao /ɡao/ | pʼe /pʼe/ | *ʔukʼ /ʔukʼ/ | kgotnún /qotnún/ | gehe /ˈɡɛhɛ/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Sleep | xaití /ʔaití/ | — | *war /war/ | lhtata /ɬtata/ | tae /tae/ | — | — |
| One | hói /hói/ | hitʼe /hitʼe/ | *jun /jun/ | aktum /aktum/ | u /ʔu/ | — /—/ | thu /θu/ |
| Two | hoí /hoí/ | nõwe /nõwe/ | *kaʼ /kaʼ/ | aktuy /aktuj/ | lolae /loˈlae/ | iri /iri/ | zal /tsal/ |
| Three | baágiso /baáɡiso/ | nǫkæ /nõkæ/ | *ʼoxibʼ /ʔoʃiɓ/ | aktutu /aktutu/ | lolitu /lolitu/ | tabe /tabe/ | ci /ki/ |
| Hello | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | tlen lhítat /tɬen ɬítat/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Thank you | kapiíhií /kapiíhií/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | paʼxkatkatsiniyán /paʔʃkatkatsiniján/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Good | báaxáí /báaʔáí/ | sæle /sæle/ | *utz /utz/ | tlan /tɬan/ | rau /rau/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| New | xasí /ʔasí/ | — | *ʔa(a)kʼ /ʔakʼ/ | xasasti /ʃasasti/ | supa /ˈsupa/ | — | — |
| Red | biísi /biísi/ | tshyathla /tsʰjaɬa/ | *kaq /kaq/ | tsutsokgo /tsutsoqo/ | imiri /imiri/ | kanb /kanb/ | — /—/ |
| White | kobiaí /kobiaí/ | — | *saq /saq/ | snapapa /snapapa/ | butiri /buˈtiri/ | — | — |
| Black | kopaíai /kopaíai/ | — | *ʔejqʼ /ʔejqʼ/ | tsitsekge /tsitseqe/ | metana /metana/ | — | — |
| Green | xahoasai /ʔahoasai/ | — | *raʔx /raʔʃ/ | — | lumuru /lumuru/ | — | — |
| Blue | xahoasai /ʔahoasai/ | — | — | — | azul /azul/ | — | — |
| Coffee | kapíi /kapíi/ | — | — | — | — | — | — |
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