Te Reo Pukapuka
Pukapukan
Austronesian (Polynesian, Samoic-Outlier)
Pukapukan (Te Reo Pukapuka), spoken by ~2,000 people on the isolated Pukapuka Atoll in the northern Cook Islands and on nearby Nassau, is one of the most genealogically debated Polynesian languages: traditionally classed as a Samoic-Outlier yet showing East Polynesian and possibly Tokelauan substrate features, the result of pre-contact wave migrations across the central Pacific. It has typical Polynesian phonology with phonemic vowel length and glottal stop, but lexically diverges enough from Cook Islands Māori (rar) that the two are not mutually intelligible. The community is small but linguistically vital, with active orthography work since the 1990s.
Where it is spoken
87 core words in Pukapukan
Sources
- Salisbury, Mary C. (2002) A Grammar of Pukapukan. PhD thesis, University of Auckland.
- Beaglehole, Ernest & Pearl (1938) Ethnology of Pukapuka. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 150.
- Teingoa Kaina et al. (1993) Pukapukan-English Dictionary. Pukapuka Dictionary Project.
- Glottolog: Pukapukan
Words compared
Compared with languages in the same classification: Austronesian (Polynesian, Samoic-Outlier)
| Meaning | Pukapukan | Tuvaluan | Tokelauan | Niuean | Samoan | Tuamotuan | Cook Islands Māori |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water | wai /wai/ | vai /vai/ | vai /vai/ | vai /vai/ | vai /vai/ | vai /vai/ | vai /vai/ |
| Fire | awi /awi/ | afi /afi/ | afi /afi/ | afi /afi/ | afi /afi/ | ahi /ahi/ | aʻi /aʔi/ |
| Sun | la /la/ | laa /laː/ | lā /laː/ | lā /laː/ | lā /laː/ | rā /raː/ | rā /raː/ |
| Moon | malama /malama/ | masina /masina/ | māhina /maːhina/ | mahina /mahina/ | māsina /maːsina/ | marama /marama/ | marama /marama/ |
| Star | wetū /wetuː/ | fetū /fetuː/ | fetu /fetu/ | fetū /fetuː/ | fetū /fetuː/ | fetū /fetuː/ | etū /etuː/ |
| Night | pō /poː/ | pō /poː/ | pō /poː/ | pō /poː/ | pō /poː/ | pō /poː/ | pō /poː/ |
| Rain | ua /ua/ | ua /ua/ | ua /ua/ | ua /ua/ | ua /ua/ | ua /ua/ | ua /ua/ |
| Snow | kīona /kiːona/ | kiona /kiona/ | kiona /kiona/ | kiona /kiona/ | kiona /kiona/ | — | kiona /kiona/ |
| Wind | matangi /mataŋi/ | matagi /mataŋi/ | matagi /mataŋi/ | matagi /mataŋi/ | matagi /mataŋi/ | matangi /mataŋi/ | matangi /mataŋi/ |
| Earth | kelekele /kelekele/ | kelekele /kelekele/ | kelekele /kelekele/ | kelekele /kelekele/ | ʻeleʻele /ʔeleʔele/ | repo /repo/ | one /one/ |
| Stone | watu /watu/ | fatu /fatu/ | fatu /fatu/ | maka /maka/ | maʻa /maʔa/ | pōfatu /poːfatu/ | toka /toka/ |
| Mountain | maunga /mauŋa/ | mauga /mauŋa/ | mauga /mauŋa/ | mouga /mouŋa/ | mauga /mauŋa/ | māunga /maːuŋa/ | maunga /mauŋa/ |
| Sea | tai /tai/ | tai /tai/ | moana /moana/ | tahi /tahi/ | sami /sami/ | tai /tai/ | tai /tai/ |
| Mother | matua wawine /matua wawine/ | maatua /maːtua/ | mātua /maːtua/ | matua fifine /matua fifine/ | tinā /tinaː/ | metua vahine /metua vahine/ | māmā /maːmaː/ |
| Father | matua tāne /matua taːne/ | tamana /tamana/ | tamana /tamana/ | matua taane /matua taːne/ | tamā /tamaː/ | metua tāne /metua taːne/ | pāpā /paːpaː/ |
| Daughter | tamāwine /tamaːwine/ | tama fafine /tama fafine/ | afafine /afafine/ | tama fifine /tama fifine/ | afafine /afafine/ | tamahine /tamahine/ | tamaine /tamaine/ |
| I | au /au/ | au /au/ | au /au/ | au /au/ | aʻu /aʔu/ | au /au/ | au /au/ |
| You | koe /koe/ | koe /koe/ | koe /koe/ | koe /koe/ | ʻoe /ʔoe/ | koe /koe/ | koe /koe/ |
| We | tātou / mātou /taːtou / maːtou/ | tātou / mātou /taːtou / maːtou/ | tātou / mātou /taːtou / maːtou/ | tautolu / mautolu /tautolu / mautolu/ | tātou / mātou /taːtou / maːtou/ | tātou / mātou /taːtou / maːtou/ | tātou / mātou /taːtou / maːtou/ |
| Name | ingoa /iŋoa/ | igoa /iŋoa/ | igoa /iŋoa/ | higoa /hiŋoa/ | igoa /iŋoa/ | ingoa /iŋoa/ | ingoa /iŋoa/ |
| Person | tangata /taŋata/ | tino /tino/ | tagata /taŋata/ | tagata /taŋata/ | tagata /taŋata/ | tangata /taŋata/ | tangata /taŋata/ |
| Head | ulu /ulu/ | ulu /ulu/ | ulu /ulu/ | ulu /ulu/ | ulu /ulu/ | upoko /upoko/ | upoko /upoko/ |
| Eye | mata /mata/ | mata /mata/ | mata /mata/ | mata /mata/ | mata /mata/ | mata /mata/ | mata /mata/ |
| Ear | talinga /taliŋa/ | taliga /taliŋa/ | taliga /taliŋa/ | taliga /taliŋa/ | taliga /taliŋa/ | taringa /tariŋa/ | taringa /taɾiŋa/ |
| Nose | iyu /iðu/ | isu /isu/ | ihu /ihu/ | ihu /ihu/ | isu /isu/ | ihu /ihu/ | putāngiʻu /putaːŋiʔu/ |
| Mouth | ngutu /ŋutu/ | gutu /ŋutu/ | gutu /ŋutu/ | gutu /ŋutu/ | gutu /ŋutu/ | vaha /vaha/ | vaʻa /vaʔa/ |
| Tooth | nio /nio/ | nifo /nifo/ | nifo /nifo/ | nifo /nifo/ | nifo /nifo/ | niho /niho/ | niʻo /niʔo/ |
| Tongue | alelo /alelo/ | alelo /alelo/ | alelo /alelo/ | alelo /alelo/ | laulaufaiva /laulaufaiva/ | arero /aɾeɾo/ | arero /aɾeɾo/ |
| Hand | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | rima /rima/ | rima /ɾima/ |
| Foot | vae /vae/ | vae /vae/ | vae /vae/ | hui /hui/ | vae /vae/ | vae /vae/ | vae /vae/ |
| Heart | loto /loto/ | fatu /fatu/ | fatu /fatu/ | atevili /atevili/ | loto /loto/ | hōupo /hoːupo/ | ngākau /ŋaːkau/ |
| Bone | ivi /ivi/ | ivi /ivi/ | ivi /ivi/ | hui /hui/ | ivi /ivi/ | ivi /ivi/ | ivi /ivi/ |
| Blood | toto /toto/ | toto /toto/ | toto /toto/ | toto /toto/ | toto /toto/ | toto /toto/ | toto /toto/ |
| Poop | tūtae /tuːtae/ | tae /tae/ | tae /tae/ | tē /teː/ | tae /tae/ | tūtae /tuːtae/ | tūtae /tuːtae/ |
| Love | aloa /aloa/ | alofa /alofa/ | alofa /alofa/ | fakaalofa /fakaalofa/ | alofa /alofa/ | aroha /aroha/ | aroʻa /aɾoʔa/ |
| Tree | lākau /laːkau/ | laakau /laːkau/ | lākau /laːkau/ | akau /akau/ | laʻau /laʔau/ | rākau /raːkau/ | rākau /raːkau/ |
| Dog | kulī /kuliː/ | kuli /kuli/ | kuli /kuli/ | kuli /kuli/ | maile /maile/ | kuri /kuri/ | puakaoa /puakaoa/ |
| Cat | pusi /pusi/ | pusi /pusi/ | puhi /puhi/ | pusi /pusi/ | pusi /pusi/ | — /—/ | ngiao /ŋiao/ |
| Fish | ika /ika/ | ika /ika/ | ika /ika/ | ika /ika/ | iʻa /iʔa/ | ika /ika/ | ika /ika/ |
| Bird | manu /manu/ | manu /manu/ | manu /manu/ | manu /manu/ | manu /manu/ | manu /manu/ | manu /manu/ |
| Egg | wuamoa /wuamoa/ | fuamoa /fuamoa/ | fuāmoa /fuaːmoa/ | fua moa /fua moa/ | fuamoa /fuamoa/ | tōuo /toːuo/ | ua /ua/ |
| Bear | pea /pea/ | pea /pea/ | pea /pea/ | urosa /urosa/ | pea /pea/ | — | pea /pea/ |
| Horse | oloenua /oloenua/ | solofanua /solofanua/ | holofanua /holofanua/ | solofanua /solofanua/ | solofanua /solofanua/ | puārehenua /puaːrehenua/ | ʻoroʻenua /ʔoɾoʔenua/ |
| House | wale /wale/ | fale /fale/ | fale /fale/ | fale /fale/ | fale /fale/ | fare /fare/ | ʻare /ʔaɾe/ |
| Milk | wū /wuː/ | susu /susu/ | huāhuhu /huaːhuhu/ | huhu /huhu/ | susu /susu/ | — | ū /uː/ |
| Honey | meli /meli/ | hani /hani/ | meli /meli/ | meli /meli/ | meli /meli/ | — | meri /meri/ |
| Salt | miti /miti/ | masima /masima/ | māhima /maːhima/ | masima /masima/ | masima /masima/ | miti /miti/ | miti /miti/ |
| Wine | uwaina /uwaina/ | uaina /uaina/ | uaina /uaina/ | uaina /uaina/ | uaina /uaina/ | — | uaina /uaina/ |
| Iron | āuli /aːuli/ | fiti /fiti/ | ukamea /ukamea/ | lapatoa /lapatoa/ | uʻamea /uʔamea/ | kāuri /kaːuri/ | ʻāuri /ʔaːuri/ |
| Silk | tilika /tilika/ | silika /silika/ | hilika /hilika/ | silika /silika/ | silika /silika/ | — | tīrika /tiːɾika/ |
| Book | puka /puka/ | tusi /tusi/ | tuhi /tuhi/ | tohi /tohi/ | tusi /tusi/ | puta /puta/ | puka /puka/ |
| Eat | kai /kai/ | kai /kai/ | kai /kai/ | kai /kai/ | ʻai /ʔai/ | kai /kai/ | kai /kai/ |
| Drink | inu /inu/ | inu /inu/ | inu /inu/ | inu /inu/ | inu /inu/ | inu /inu/ | inu /inu/ |
| Sleep | moe /moe/ | moe /moe/ | moe /moe/ | mohe /mohe/ | moe /moe/ | moe /moe/ | moe /moe/ |
| One | tayi /taði/ | tasi /tasi/ | tahi /tahi/ | taha /taha/ | tasi /tasi/ | tahi /tahi/ | taʻi /taʔi/ |
| Two | lua /lua/ | lua /lua/ | lua /lua/ | ua /ua/ | lua /lua/ | rua /rua/ | rua /rua/ |
| Three | tolu /tolu/ | tolu /tolu/ | tolu /tolu/ | tolu /tolu/ | tolu /tolu/ | toru /toɾu/ | toru /toɾu/ |
| Four | wā /waː/ | fā /faː/ | fā /faː/ | fā /faː/ | fā /faː/ | hā /haː/ | ʻā /ʔaː/ |
| Five | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | rima /ɾima/ | rima /ɾima/ |
| Hundred | lau /lau/ | selau /selau/ | helau /helau/ | teau /teau/ | selau /selau/ | hānere /haːnere/ | ʻānere /ʔaːnere/ |
| Hello | kia orana /kia oɾana/ | taalofa /taːlofa/ | malo ni /malo ni/ | fakaalofa atu /fakaalofa atu/ | talofa /talofa/ | — /—/ | kia orāna /kia oɾaːna/ |
| Thank you | meitaki /meitaki/ | fakafetai /fakafetai/ | fakafetai /fakafetai/ | fakaaue /fakaaue/ | faʻafetai /faʔafetai/ | — /—/ | meitaki /meitaki/ |
| Good | lelei /lelei/ | lei /lei/ | lelei /lelei/ | mitaki /mitaki/ | lelei /lelei/ | maitaki /maitaki/ | meitaki /meitaki/ |
| New | wou /wou/ | fou /fou/ | fou /fou/ | foou /foou/ | fou /fou/ | hoou /hoou/ | ʻou /ʔou/ |
| Red | kula /kula/ | kula /kula/ | kukula /kukula/ | kula /kula/ | mūmū /muːmuː/ | kura /kuɾa/ | muramura /muɾamuɾa/ |
| White | tea /tea/ | kena /kena/ | paepae /paepae/ | tea /tea/ | paʻepaʻe /paʔepaʔe/ | tea /tea/ | teatea /teatea/ |
| Black | uli /uli/ | uli /uli/ | uli /uli/ | uli /uli/ | uliuli /uliuli/ | kere /kere/ | kerekere /keɾekeɾe/ |
| Green | yengayenga /ðeŋaðeŋa/ | lanu lau niu /lanu lau niu/ | lanu meamata /lanu meamata/ | lanu laukou /lanu laukou/ | lanumeamata /lanumeamata/ | matie /matie/ | matie /matie/ |
| Blue | yengayenga /ðeŋaðeŋa/ | lanu moana /lanu moana/ | lanumoana /lanumoana/ | lanu moana /lanu moana/ | lanumoana /lanumoana/ | ninamu /ninamu/ | auīka /auiːka/ |
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