Dohkapuara
Tuyuca
Tukanoan (Eastern)
Tuyuca (Dohkapuara) is an Eastern Tukanoan language of the NW Amazon, spoken by ~800-1000 people along the Papurí river and adjacent Vaupés tributaries on the Colombia-Brazil border. The Tuyuca participate in the famous Vaupés linguistic-exogamy network, in which spouses must come from a different language group, producing extreme societal multilingualism. Tuyuca is the textbook example of OBLIGATORY EVIDENTIALITY: every finite verb form must specify the speaker's source of information through one of FIVE evidential markers — visual (you saw it), non-visual (heard / felt / smelled), inferred (deduced from physical evidence), assumed (general knowledge / habitual), and reported (someone told you). The English statement "John played soccer" cannot be translated into Tuyuca without simultaneously encoding HOW the speaker knows it. Barnes' 1984 IJAL paper and Aikhenvald's 2004 monograph Evidentiality (Oxford) made the Tuyuca system the touchstone for cross-linguistic typology of evidentials.
Where it is spoken
87 core words in Tuyuca
Sources
- Barnes, Janet (1984) "Evidentials in the Tuyuca verb" IJAL 50:255-271
- Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (2004) Evidentiality (Oxford University Press)
- Stenzel, Kristine (2007) "The semantics of serial verb constructions" Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi
- Glottolog: Tuyuca
- Ethnologue: tue
Words compared
Compared with languages in the same classification: Tukanoan (Eastern)
| Meaning | Tuyuca | Wichita | Lardil | Xavante | Lhomi | Hajong | Yuchi |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water | oko /oko/ | kicʔa /kitsʔa/ | nguka /ŋuka/ | â /ə/ | ཆུ་ /tɕʰu˥/ | pani /pani/ | tse /tse/ |
| Fire | pekãbẽ /pekãbẽ/ | heːcʔa /heːtsʔa/ | nyuda /ɲuda/ | uzâ /uˈzə/ | མེ་ /me˥/ | ag /aɡ/ | ʼyati /ʔjati/ |
| Sun | muĩpũ /muĩpũ/ | saːkhirʔa /saːkʰiɾʔa/ | warrka /waɾka/ | bâdâ /bəˈdə/ | ཉི་མ་ /ɲi˥ma˩/ | bela /bela/ | tso /tso/ |
| Moon | ñami makʉ̃ /ɲami makɨ̃/ | waːh /waːh/ | kirdikir /kiɖikir/ | aʼamo /aʔaˈmɔ/ | ཟླ་བ་ /dawa˩/ | চান /tʃan/ | shafa /ʃafa/ |
| Star | ñokõ /ɲokõ/ | hiːkwirikʔa /hiːkʷiɾikʔa/ | kuwa thungal /kuwa θuŋal/ | wasi /waˈsi/ | སྐར་མ /karma˥/ | tara /taɾa/ | weʼyv /weʔjʌ̃/ |
| Night | yãbĩ /jãˈbĩ/ | ckhaːrʔa /tskʰaːɾʔa/ | nata /nata/ | mara /maɾa/ | མཚན་མོ /tsʰemːu˥/ | rati /rati/ | pado /pado/ |
| Rain | oko /oˈko/ | — | — | tã /tã/ | — | mek /mek/ | — |
| Wind | wĩdõ /wĩˈdõ/ | niweʔeːrʔa /niweʔeːɾʔa/ | — | rowaʼu /ɾɔwaˈʔu/ | — | batas /batas/ | — |
| Earth | dita /diˈta/ | — | — | tiʼa /tiˈʔa/ | ས /sa˥/ | মাটি /maʈi/ | — |
| Stone | ʉ̃tã /ɨ̃tã/ | — | — | ẽne /ɛ̃ˈne/ | རྡོ་ /do˥/ | — | — |
| Mountain | ʉ̃tãgʉ̃ /ɨ̃tãɡɨ̃/ | — | — | ẽtẽ ʼrãihâ /ɛ̃tɛ̃ ʔɾãihə/ | — | — | — |
| Sea | dia pairibã /ˈdia paiˈɾibã/ | — | — | â poré /ə pɔɾɛ/ | — | — | — |
| Mother | pakó /pakó/ | eciyeːh /etsijeːh/ | ngama /ŋama/ | dana /daˈna/ | ཨ་མ་ /ʔama˩/ | ma /ma/ | ditsehæ /ditsehæ/ |
| Father | pakʉ /pakɨ/ | taːtah /taːtah/ | kantha /kan̪t̪a/ | damama /damaˈma/ | ཨ་པ་ /ʔapa˩/ | baba /baba/ | dzetʼe /dzetʼe/ |
| Daughter | makó /mãkõ/ | — | — | daʼra sipiʼõ /daʔɾa sipiʔɔ̃/ | — | — | — |
| I | yʉʉ /jɨː/ | nacʔih /natsʔih/ | ngada /ŋada/ | wa /wa/ | ང /ŋa˩/ | moi /muɪ/ | di /di/ |
| You | mʉʉ /mɨː/ | nasʔih /nasʔih/ | nyingki /ɲiŋki/ | a /a/ | ཁྱོད /kʰjø˥/ | tui /tuɪ/ | tse /tse/ |
| We | bãrĩ / ʉ̃sã /bãˈɾĩ / ɨ̃ˈsã/ | — /—/ | ngakuli / nyali /ŋakuli / ɲali/ | wa norĩ /wa noɾĩ/ | — /—/ | amra /amra/ | ʼõdi / nõdi /ʔõdi / nõdi/ |
| Name | wamé /wamẽ/ | hissaːrʔa /hissaːɾʔa/ | nyunda /ɲunda/ | danhisi /daɲiˈsi/ | མིང /miŋ˩/ | nam /nam/ | tiʼe /tiʔe/ |
| Person | basokɨ /basokɨ/ | ihaas /ihaas/ | — | aʼuwẽ /aʔuˈwɛ̃/ | — | — | — |
| Head | dupu /duˈpu/ | — | — | daʼrã /daʔɾã/ | — | — | — |
| Eye | kapea /kapea/ | kirikʔa /kiɾikʔa/ | kuwa /kuwa/ | dato /daˈtɔ/ | མིག་ /mik˥/ | soku /sɔku/ | gochi /ɡotʃʰi/ |
| Ear | kãbõpero /kãbõˈpeɾo/ | — | — | dapoʼre /dapɔˈʔɾe/ | — | kan /kan/ | — |
| Nose | ẽkẽã /ẽkẽã/ | — | — | danhisiʼre /daɲisiˈʔɾe/ | — | nak /nak/ | — |
| Mouth | ʉsero /ɨseɾo/ | — | — | dapẽʼẽ /dapɛ̃ˈʔɛ̃/ | — | — | — |
| Tooth | upi /uˈpi/ | aːkʔa /aːkʔa/ | kadma leman /kadma leman/ | daʼwa /daˈʔwa/ | སོ /so˥/ | dat /dat/ | kẽ /kẽ/ |
| Tongue | yẽbẽro /jẽˈbẽɾõ/ | hacʼa /hatsʔa/ | jalda leman /dʒalda leman/ | danhoto /daɲɔˈtɔ/ | ལྕེ /tɕila˥/ | jiba /dʒiba/ | kʼẽka /kʼẽka/ |
| Hand | wãmo /wãmo/ | iskʔa /iskʔa/ | marlda /maɭda/ | danhibʼrada /daɲibʔɾaˈda/ | ལག་པ་ /lakpa˩/ | hat /hat/ | weʼothæ /weʔotʰæ/ |
| Foot | dʉpo /dɨpo/ | asʔa /asʔa/ | jaa /dʒaː/ | dapara /dapaˈɾa/ | རྐང་པ /kaŋpa˥/ | theng /ʈʰeŋ/ | wedithæ /weditʰæ/ |
| Heart | yeeripũna /jeːɾipũna/ | sikicʔa /sikitsʔa/ | bulja /buldʒa/ | dasiri /dasiˈɾi/ | སྙིང་ /ɲiŋ˥/ | mon /mon/ | wethæ /wetʰæ/ |
| Bone | kõã /kõˈã/ | kiːsʔa /kiːsʔa/ | kadma /kadma/ | dahi /daˈhi/ | རུས་པ /ryːpa˥/ | harang /haraŋ/ | weshʼe /weʃʼe/ |
| Blood | dii /diː/ | waːckicʔa /waːtskitsʔa/ | kanda /kanda/ | dawapru /dawaˈpɾu/ | ཁྲག /tʰak˥/ | rokto /rɔkto/ | wi /wi/ |
| Poop | kʉ̃dã /kɨ̃dã/ | — | — | danhana /daɲaˈna/ | — | — | — |
| Love | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | danhimizawi pese zé /daɲimizawi pese zɛ/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Tree | yukɨgɨ /jukɨɡɨ/ | tiyaːhkw /tijaːhkʷ/ | thungal /θuŋal/ | wede /weˈde/ | ཤིང་ /ɕiŋ˥/ | gas /ɡas/ | ʼya /ʔja/ |
| Dog | diayi /diaji/ | kiciyeːh /kitsijeːh/ | ngawa /ŋawa/ | wapsã /wapˈsã/ | ཁྱི་ /kʰi˥/ | kuthura /kutʰuɾa/ | dzene /dzene/ |
| Cat | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Fish | wai /waˈi/ | kaːcʔa /kaːtsʔa/ | yaka /jaka/ | tebe /tebe/ | ན /na˥/ | mas /maːtʃʰ/ | shu /ʃu/ |
| Bird | bĩdĩbãkʉ̃ /bĩdĩbãˈkɨ̃/ | ichir /itsʰiɾ/ | — | sire /siˈɾe/ | — | — | — |
| Butterfly | bõbõrõ /bõˈbõɾõ/ | — | — | piro /piˈɾɔ/ | — | — | — |
| Egg | diye /dije/ | nikwiːkʔa /nikʷiːkʔa/ | — | siʼaʼre /siʔaˈʔɾe/ | — | dim /dim/ | — |
| Horse | caballo /kaˈbajo/ | — | — | awaru /awaˈɾu/ | — | — | — |
| House | wii /wiː/ | akhaːrʔa /akʰaːɾʔa/ | ngambirr /ŋambir/ | ʼri /ʔɾi/ | ཁྱིམ་ /kʰim˥/ | ghor /ɡʱoɾ/ | yufa /jufa/ |
| Milk | õpẽko /õpẽˈko/ | — | — | hâiwaʼu /həiwaˈʔu/ | — | dudh /dudʱ/ | — |
| Honey | bũbĩã oko /bũbĩã oko/ | — | — | ropĩ /ɾɔˈpĩ/ | — | — | — |
| Salt | móã /mõã/ | — | — | sa /sa/ | ཚྭ་ /tsʰa˥/ | — | — |
| Wine | vino /ˈbino/ | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Rice | arusu /aˈɾusu/ | — | — | aro /aˈɾɔ/ | — | — | — |
| Iron | kõbẽ /kõˈbẽ/ | — | — | siʼuwazi /siʔuwaˈzi/ | — | luha /luɦa/ | — |
| Wheel | beto /beˈto/ | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Book | paperatuti /paˈpeɾatuti/ | — | — | ĩbaihâ /ĩbaiˈhə/ | — | — | — |
| Eat | yaa /jaː/ | kaʔac /kaʔats/ | jitha /dʒiθa/ | tisa /tiˈsa/ | ཟ་ /sa˩/ | kha /kʰa/ | gothlæ /ɡoɬæ/ |
| Drink | sĩdĩ /sĩdĩ/ | kikʔa /kikʔa/ | kurdama /kuɖama/ | hâʼrẽ /həˈʔɾɛ̃/ | འཐུང་ /tʰuŋ˩/ | kha /kʰa/ | pʼe /pʼe/ |
| Sleep | kãdĩ /kãdĩ/ | — | — | nhono /ɲɔˈnɔ/ | ཉལ་ /ɲal˩/ | ghuma /ɡʱuma/ | — |
| One | sika /sika/ | chiʔass /tsʰiʔass/ | warnge /waɾŋe/ | misi /miˈsi/ | གཅིག་ /tɕik˥/ | ek /ek/ | hitʼe /hitʼe/ |
| Two | pʉ́aro /pɨ́aɾo/ | wic /wits/ | kiyarrng /kijaɾŋ/ | maparane /mapaɾaˈne/ | གཉིས /ɲi˩/ | dui /duɪ/ | nõwe /nõwe/ |
| Three | itia /itia/ | taw /taw/ | mungkalan /muŋkalan/ | siʼubdatõ /siʔubdaˈtɔ̃/ | གསུམ /ʰsum˥/ | tin /tin/ | nǫkæ /nõkæ/ |
| Four | bapari /bapaɾi/ | taːkwic /taːkʷits/ | — | maparane siʼuiwa /mapaɾane siʔuiwa/ | བཞི /ʃi˩/ | — | — |
| Five | sikabõhẽyẽ /siˈkabõhẽjẽ/ | — | — | ĩmrotõ /ĩmɾɔˈtɔ̃/ | ལྔ /ʰŋa˥/ | — | chʼwahe /tʃʼwahe/ |
| Hundred | cien /sjen/ | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Hello | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | བཀྲ་ཤིས་བདེ་ལེགས /taɕi˥ tele˩/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Thank you | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Good | ãñu /ãɲu/ | acs /atss/ | kuba /kuba/ | ĩwẽ /ĩˈwɛ̃/ | ཡག་པོ་ /jakpo˩/ | bhala /bʱala/ | sæle /sæle/ |
| New | bãbã /bãˈbã/ | — | — | ĩté /ĩˈtɛ/ | — | — | — |
| Red | sõã /sõˈã/ | kwhaːc /kʷʰaːts/ | kandukan /kandukan/ | ĩpré /ĩˈpɾɛ/ | དམར་པོ /mar˥pu˩/ | lal /lal/ | tshyathla /tsʰjaɬa/ |
| White | buti /buˈti/ | — | — | ĩʼa /ĩˈʔa/ | དཀར་པོ /kar˥pu˩/ | dhola /dʱola/ | — |
| Black | yĩĩ /jĩˈĩ/ | — | — | ĩʼrãdâ /ĩʔɾãˈdə/ | — | — | — |
| Green | sɨ̃bẽ /sɨ̃ˈbẽ/ | — | — | ĩʼuzé /ĩʔuˈzɛ/ | — | — | — |
| Blue | sɨ̃bẽ /sɨ̃ˈbẽ/ | — | — | ĩʼuzé /ĩʔuˈzɛ/ | — | — | — |
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