Rotokas
North Bougainville (isolate-like)
Rotokas is famous for having one of the smallest phoneme inventories in the world: just six consonants (p, t, k, β, ɾ, ɡ) and five vowels in the central dialect — no nasals at all. Spoken by ~4,000 people in the mountainous interior of Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea). The central-dialect inventory was first carefully documented by Stuart and Janice Firchow (1973) for the Summer Institute of Linguistics; Stuart Robinson (2006, 2011) re-examined the Aita dialect, which adds nasal segments and brings the consonant count closer to nine. Because Rotokas has such a small sound system, words tend to be longer than in phonologically rich languages — a small alphabet of phonemes needs more syllables to keep words apart.
Where it is spoken
87 core words in Rotokas
Sources
- Firchow & Firchow (1973) SIL Rotokas vocabulary
- Robinson (2006) "The Phoneme Inventory of the Aita Dialect of Rotokas." Oceanic Linguistics 45(1): 206-209
- Glottolog: Rotokas (roto1249)
- WALS: Rotokas
Words compared
Compared with languages in the same classification: North Bougainville (isolate-like)
| Meaning | Rotokas | Lardil | Enga | Gilbertese | Hiri Motu | Mussau-Emira | Tok Pisin |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water | uukoa /uːkoa/ | nguka /ŋuka/ | endaki /endaki/ | ran /ɾan/ | ranu /ɾanu/ | manu /manu/ | wara /waɾa/ |
| Fire | tuitui /tuitui/ | nyuda /ɲuda/ | ita /ita/ | ai /ai/ | lahi /lahi/ | kuraa /kuˈraː/ | paia /paja/ |
| Sun | ravireo /ɾaβiɾeo/ | warrka /waɾka/ | niki /niki/ | taai /taːi/ | dina /dina/ | sinaka /sinaka/ | san /san/ |
| Moon | kekira /kekiɾa/ | kirdikir /kiɖikir/ | kana /kana/ | namwakaina /namʷakaina/ | hua /hua/ | ulana /ulana/ | mun /mun/ |
| Star | aaviiko /aːβiːko/ | kuwa thungal /kuwa θuŋal/ | bui /bui/ | itoi /iˈtoi/ | hisiu /hisiu/ | katoto /katoto/ | sta /sta/ |
| Night | rupa /ɾupa/ | nata /nata/ | kuka /kuka/ | bong /boŋ/ | hanuaboi /hanuaboi/ | voo /voː/ | nait /nait/ |
| Rain | kokeva /kokeβa/ | — | apu /apu/ | karau /kaˈɾau/ | medu /medu/ | vaoo /vaoo/ | ren /ren/ |
| Wind | kiuvu /kiuβu/ | — | poo /poː/ | ang /aŋ/ | lai /lai/ | kuukuu /kuukuu/ | win /win/ |
| Earth | rasito /ɾasito/ | — | yuu /juː/ | tano /tano/ | tano /tano/ | kosa /kosa/ | graun /ɡraun/ |
| Stone | aveke /aβeke/ | — | kana /kana/ | atibu /aˈsibu/ | nadi /ˈnadi/ | atu /atu/ | ston /ston/ |
| Mountain | pukui /pukui/ | — | yuu manda /juː manda/ | maunga /mauŋa/ | ororo /ororo/ | motouru /motouru/ | maunten /maunten/ |
| Sea | toruva /toɾuβa/ | — | solowata /solowata/ | marawa /maɾawa/ | davara /davara/ | paamanu /paamanu/ | solwara /solwaɾa/ |
| Mother | aako /aːko/ | ngama /ŋama/ | endangi /endaŋɡi/ | tina /ˈsina/ | sina /sina/ | kina /kina/ | mama /mama/ |
| Father | aite /aite/ | kantha /kan̪t̪a/ | takange /takaŋɡe/ | tama /tama/ | tama /tama/ | tama /tama/ | papa /papa/ |
| Daughter | oviiva /oβiːβa/ | — | wanenge /waneŋɡe/ | natiu te aine /nasiu te aine/ | natuna kekeni /natuna kekeni/ | natuna vause /natuna vause/ | pikinini meri /pikinini meri/ |
| I | ragai /ɾaɡai/ | ngada /ŋada/ | namba /namba/ | ngai /ŋai/ | lau /lau/ | aghi /aɣi/ | mi /mi/ |
| You | vii /βiː/ | nyingki /ɲiŋki/ | emba /emba/ | ngkoe /ŋkoe/ | oi /oi/ | io /io/ | yu /ju/ |
| We | vigei / igei /βiɡei / iɡei/ | ngakuli / nyali /ŋakuli / ɲali/ | naima /naima/ | ngaira /ŋaira/ | ita / ai /ita / ai/ | ita / ami /ita / ami/ | yumi / mipela /jumi / mipela/ |
| Name | vaisia /βaisia/ | nyunda /ɲunda/ | kenge /keŋɡe/ | ara /ˈara/ | ladana /laˈdana/ | arari /arari/ | nem /nem/ |
| Head | kukue /kukue/ | — | ayamba /ajamba/ | atu /ˈatu/ | kwarana /kʷarana/ | uru /uru/ | het /het/ |
| Eye | osireito /osiɾeito/ | kuwa /kuwa/ | lenge /leŋɡe/ | mata /mata/ | matana /matana/ | mata /mata/ | ai /aj/ |
| Ear | uvareoua /uβaɾeoua/ | — | kale /kale/ | taninga /taniŋa/ | taiana /taiana/ | talinga /taliŋa/ | yau /jau/ |
| Nose | iruvaoto /iɾuβaoto/ | — | lyaa /ʎaː/ | bwairi /bʷairi/ | udubaubauna /udubaubauna/ | ngusu /ŋusu/ | nus /nus/ |
| Mouth | akuta /akuta/ | — | kambu /kambu/ | — | uduna /uduna/ | paa /paa/ | maus /maus/ |
| Tooth | reuri /ɾeuɾi/ | kadma leman /kadma leman/ | nenge /neŋɡe/ | wi /wi/ | isena /isena/ | ngalungalu /ŋaluŋalu/ | tit /tit/ |
| Tongue | arevuoto /aɾeβuoto/ | jalda leman /dʒalda leman/ | keke /keke/ | newe /newe/ | mala /mala/ | ramuramutipa /ramuramutipa/ | tang /taŋ/ |
| Hand | vavae /βaβae/ | marlda /maɭda/ | kingi /kiŋɡi/ | bai /bai/ | ima /ima/ | nima /nima/ | han /han/ |
| Foot | kokoto /kokoto/ | jaa /dʒaː/ | moko /moko/ | wae /wae/ | ae /ae/ | keke /keke/ | lek /lek/ |
| Heart | vovouisi /βoβouisi/ | bulja /buldʒa/ | mona /mona/ | nano /nano/ | kudouna /kudouna/ | urunguita /uruŋuita/ | bel /bel/ |
| Bone | kerua /keɾua/ | kadma /kadma/ | kuli /kuli/ | ri /ri/ | turia /turia/ | riu /riu/ | bun /bun/ |
| Blood | revasiva /ɾeβasiβa/ | kanda /kanda/ | taiyoko /taijoko/ | rara /ɾaɾa/ | rara /rara/ | rae /rae/ | blut /blut/ |
| Love | — /—/ | — /—/ | auu kaenge /auː kaeŋɡe/ | tangira /taŋiɾa/ | lalokau /lalokau/ | aielousi /aielousi/ | laikim /lajkim/ |
| Tree | evaova /eβaoβa/ | thungal /θuŋal/ | ita /ita/ | kai /kai/ | au /au/ | ai /ai/ | diwai /diwaj/ |
| Dog | kaakau /kaːkau/ | ngawa /ŋawa/ | yana /jana/ | kamea /kamea/ | sisia /sisia/ | paua /paua/ | dok /dok/ |
| Cat | — /—/ | — /—/ | pusi /pusi/ | katama /katama/ | pusi /pusi/ | busi /busi/ | pusi /pusi/ |
| Fish | atarito /ataɾito/ | yaka /jaka/ | amane /amane/ | ika /ˈika/ | gwarume /ɡʷaɾume/ | kko /kːo/ | pis /pis/ |
| Bird | kokio /kokio/ | — | yaka /jaka/ | mannikiba /mannikiba/ | manu /manu/ | ghila /ɣila/ | pisin /ˈpisin/ |
| Butterfly | kokopuoto /kokopuoto/ | — | — | bwebwe /bʷebʷe/ | kaubebe /kaubebe/ | kaubebe /kaubebe/ | bataplai /bataplaj/ |
| Egg | takura /takuɾa/ | — | tuku /tuku/ | bunnimoa /bunːiˈmoa/ | gatoi /ɡatoi/ | otolu /otolu/ | kiau /kiau/ |
| Bear | bea /bea/ | — | bea /bea/ | bea /bea/ | bea /bea/ | beaa /beaː/ | bea /bea/ |
| Horse | hos /hos/ | — | osa /osa/ | aoti /aosi/ | hosi /hosi/ | ooso /ooso/ | hos /hos/ |
| House | kepa /kepa/ | ngambirr /ŋambir/ | anda /anda/ | auti /ˈausi/ | ruma /ɾuma/ | ale /ale/ | haus /haus/ |
| Honey | koisi ovi /koisi oβi/ | — | oni /oni/ | meri /meɾi/ | — | iruena /iɾuena/ | hani /hani/ |
| Salt | avaka /aβaka/ | — | aipi /aipi/ | taoro /taoro/ | damena /damena/ | uela /uela/ | sol /sol/ |
| Wine | wain /wain/ | — | waene /waene/ | wain /wain/ | uaina /uaina/ | uaeni /uaeni/ | wain /wain/ |
| Iron | ain /ain/ | — | aene /aene/ | biti /ˈpisi/ | auri /ˈauɾi/ | aeana /aeana/ | ain /ain/ |
| Wheel | viriviria /βiɾiβiɾia/ | — | — | wira /wiɾa/ | uili /uili/ | — | wil /wil/ |
| Book | vuku /βuku/ | — | buku /buku/ | boki /ˈboki/ | buka /ˈbuka/ | vuku /vuku/ | buk /buk/ |
| Eat | aio /aio/ | jitha /dʒiθa/ | nepenge /nepeŋɡe/ | amwarake /amʷaɾake/ | ania /ania/ | nama /nama/ | kaikai /kajkaj/ |
| Drink | ukaio /ukaio/ | kurdama /kuɖama/ | na pee /na peː/ | nima /nima/ | inua /inua/ | ropi /ropi/ | dring /dɾiŋ/ |
| Sleep | uusi /uːsi/ | — | luu palenge /luː paleŋɡe/ | matu /ˈmatu/ | mahuta /maˈhuta/ | asekanue /asekanue/ | slip /slip/ |
| One | katai /katai/ | warnge /waɾŋe/ | mendai /mendai/ | teuana /teuana/ | ta /ta/ | sesa /sesa/ | wanpela /wanpɛla/ |
| Two | erao /eɾao/ | kiyarrng /kijaɾŋ/ | lapo /lapo/ | uoua /uˈoua/ | rua /rua/ | lua /lua/ | tu /tu/ |
| Three | vo peva /βo peβa/ | mungkalan /muŋkalan/ | tepo /tepo/ | tenua /teˈnua/ | toi /toi/ | kotolu /kotolu/ | tripela /tripɛla/ |
| Four | vo resura /βo ɾesuɾa/ | — | kitomende /kitomende/ | aua /aua/ | hani /hani/ | ghaata /ɣaata/ | fopela /fopɛla/ |
| Five | vo vavae /βo βaβae/ | — | yuungi /juːŋɡi/ | nimaua /nimaua/ | ima /ima/ | lima /lima/ | faiv /faiv/ |
| Hundred | vovoto /βoβoto/ | — | andate /andate/ | tebubua /tebuˈbua/ | handred /handred/ | kateva ai /kateva ai/ | handet /handet/ |
| Hello | vearoa /βeaɾoa/ | — /—/ | kotaka /kotaka/ | mauri /mauɾi/ | namona /namona/ | elue talaua /elue talaua/ | halo /halo/ |
| Thank you | vearovira /βeaɾoβiɾa/ | — /—/ | yaka pilyino lenge /jaka piʎino leŋɡe/ | ko rabwa /ko ɾabʷa/ | tanikiu /tanikiu/ | kaili emasina /kaili emasina/ | tenkyu /tɛŋkju/ |
| Good | rekoreko /ɾekoɾeko/ | kuba /kuba/ | epe /epe/ | raoiroi /ɾaoiɾoi/ | namo /namo/ | masina /masina/ | gutpela /ɡutpɛla/ |
| New | aire /aiɾe/ | — | enenge /eneŋɡe/ | bou /bou/ | matamata /matamata/ | ouna /ouna/ | nupela /nupɛla/ |
| Red | revasia /ɾeβasia/ | kandukan /kandukan/ | kone /kone/ | uraura /uɾaˈuɾa/ | kakakaka /kakakaka/ | raeraeana /raeraeana/ | retpela /retpela/ |
| White | popote /popote/ | — | kyeo /kjeo/ | mainaina /mainaina/ | kurokuro /kurokuro/ | usousoana /usousoana/ | waitpela /waitpela/ |
| Black | rupa /ɾupa/ | — | pumbuti /pumbuti/ | roro /ɾoɾo/ | korema /korema/ | voovongiena /voovoŋiena/ | blakpela /blakpela/ |
| Green | kokovara /kokoβaɾa/ | — | sakapae /sakapae/ | mawawa /mawawa/ | gadoka gadoka /ɡadoka ɡadoka/ | — | grinpela /ɡrinpela/ |
| Blue | kuuva /kuːβa/ | — | sakapae /sakapae/ | mawawa /mawawa/ | gadoka gadoka /ɡadoka ɡadoka/ | — | blupela /blupela/ |
| Coffee | koopi /koːpi/ | — | kopi /kopi/ | kobe /kobe/ | kofi /kofi/ | — | kopi /kopi/ |
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