Drekay
Rukai
Austronesian (Formosan, Rukai — own primary branch)
Rukai (Drekay), spoken by ~10K people across the Pingtung, Kaohsiung and Taitung mountains of southern Taiwan, is one of the most divergent Austronesian languages — Glottolog and most Formosanists place it on its own primary branch, coordinate with the rest of the family (i.e. as old a split as Proto-Austronesian itself). It has six recognised dialects (Tanan, Labuan, Budai, Maga, Tona, Mantauran), some so distinct (notably Mantauran) that they are scarcely mutually intelligible. Phonologically it preserves a four-vowel system /i e a u/ (some dialects add /ɨ/) and a uvular /q/, and grammatically uses Austronesian-style focus marking but lacks the full four-way voice system seen in most other Formosan languages, a typological puzzle central to debates on Proto-Austronesian reconstruction.
Where it is spoken
87 core words in Rukai
Sources
- Li, Paul Jen-kuei (1973) Rukai Structure. Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica Special Publications 64.
- Zeitoun, Elizabeth (2007) A Grammar of Mantauran (Rukai). Language and Linguistics Monograph Series A4-2, Academia Sinica.
- Council of Indigenous Peoples, Taiwan — Rukai (Drekay) orthography & dictionary (2005, rev. 2018).
- Glottolog: Rukai
Words compared
Compared with languages in the same classification: Austronesian (Formosan, Rukai — own primary branch)
| Meaning | Rukai | Paiwan | Puyuma | Bunun | Kavalan | Amis | Coastal Kadazan |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water | acilai /aˈtsilai/ | zaljum /zaʎum/ | enay /enai/ | danum /danum/ | zanum /zaˈnum/ | nanom /nanom/ | waig /waiɡ/ |
| Fire | apoy /aˈpoi/ | sapuy /sapui/ | apuy /apui/ | sapuz /sapuz/ | ramaz /raˈmaz/ | namal /namal/ | tapui /taˈpui/ |
| Sun | vai /vai/ | qadaw /qadaw/ | kadaw /kadaw/ | vali /vali/ | siban /siˈban/ | cidal /tsiðal/ | tadau /taˈdau/ |
| Moon | dramare /ɖamaɾə/ | qiljas /qiʎas/ | bulan /buɭan/ | buan /buan/ | buran /buˈran/ | folad /folað/ | vuhan /ˈvuhan/ |
| Star | tariaw /taɾiaw/ | vituqan /vituqan/ | vituwan /vituwan/ | bintuhan /bintuhan/ | bituqan /bituqan/ | foʼis /foʔis/ | tombituon /tombituon/ |
| Night | maʼungu /maʔuŋu/ | qezemezemetj /qəzəməzəmətʲ/ | ʼarmeng /ʔarməŋ/ | labian /labian/ | qabi /ʁabiʔ/ | lafiʼ /lafiʔ/ | sodop /sodop/ |
| Rain | odalə /odalə/ | qudjalj /quɟaʎ/ | ʼudal /ʔudal/ | qudan /qudan/ | uzan /uˈzan/ | ʼorad /ʔorad/ | rasam /rasam/ |
| Snow | pasaabu /pasaːbu/ | sulja /suʎa/ | urelra /uɾəla/ | paav /paav/ | suRna /suʁna/ | soleda^ /soləðaʔ/ | — |
| Wind | sasəvəranə /sasəvəɾanə/ | vali /vali/ | bali /baɭi/ | luvluv /luvluv/ | bari /baˈri/ | fali /fali/ | tongus /toŋus/ |
| Earth | dae /daə/ | qipu /qipu/ | dare /ðarə/ | dalah /dalah/ | melanay /məɾaˈnaj/ | sera /səra/ | tana /tana/ |
| Stone | lrənəgə /ɭənəɡə/ | qaciljai /qatsiʎai/ | barasa /barasa/ | batu /batu/ | btu /btu/ | fakeluh /fakeluh/ | vatu /vatu/ |
| Mountain | lregelrege /ɭəɡəɭəɡə/ | gadu /ɡadu/ | zenan /ʐənan/ | ludun /ludun/ | naung /nauŋ/ | lutuk /lutuk/ | nuhu /nuhu/ |
| Sea | laveke /ɭavəkə/ | ljavek /ʎavək/ | lrevek /ɭəvək/ | ning-av /ŋiŋʔav/ | lazing /laziŋ/ | riyar /rijar/ | rahat /rahat/ |
| Mother | kainā /kaiˈnaː/ | kina /kina/ | ina /ina/ | tina /tina/ | tina /ˈtina/ | ina /ina/ | tina /ˈtina/ |
| Father | amā /aˈmaː/ | kama /kama/ | ama /ama/ | tama /tama/ | tama /ˈtama/ | ama /ama/ | tama /ˈtama/ |
| Daughter | ababay ka lalake /ababai ka lalake/ | aljak a vavayan /aʎak a vavajan/ | walrak na babayan /waɭak na babajan/ | uvaazpingaz /uvaazpiŋaz/ | — | fafahiyan a wawa /fafahijan a wawa/ | — |
| I | kunaku /kunaku/ | tiaken /tiakən/ | kuiku /kuiku/ | saikin /saikin/ | aiku /aiku/ | kako /kako/ | zou /zou/ |
| You | kusu /kusu/ | sun /sun/ | yu /ju/ | suu /suʔu/ | aisu /aisu/ | kiso /kiso/ | ika /ika/ |
| We | kuta / kunai /kuta / kunai/ | titjen / tiamen /titʲən / tiamən/ | taita / mimi /taita / mimi/ | kata / kaimin /kata / kaimin/ | aita / aimi /aita / aimi/ | kita / kami /kita / kami/ | tokou / zikoi /tokou / zikoi/ |
| Name | ngadhalj /ŋaðaɭ/ | ngadan /ŋadan/ | ngadan /ŋadan/ | ngaan /ŋaan/ | nangan /naŋan/ | ngangan /ŋaŋan/ | ngaran /ŋaran/ |
| Person | umawmase /umawmasə/ | caucau /tsautsau/ | trau /ʈau/ | bunun /bunun/ | lazat /lazat/ | tamdaw /tamðaw/ | tuhun /tuhun/ |
| Head | aolo /aoɭo/ | qulu /qulu/ | tranguruʼ /ʈaŋuɾuʔ/ | bungu /buŋu/ | uru /uʁu/ | tangal /taŋal/ | tuhu /tuhu/ |
| Eye | maca /ˈmatsa/ | maca /matsa/ | mata /mata/ | mata /mata/ | mata /maˈta/ | mata /mata/ | mato /ˈmato/ |
| Ear | calinga /tsaɭiŋa/ | caliŋa /tsaliŋa/ | tangila /taŋiɭa/ | tainga /taiŋa/ | kayal /kajal/ | tangila /taŋila/ | tohingo /toˈhiŋo/ |
| Nose | ngongoanə /ŋoŋoanə/ | ŋudus /ŋudus/ | tingran /tiŋɾan/ | ngutus /ŋutus/ | unung /unuŋ/ | ngosoʼ /ŋosoʔ/ | todung /toduŋ/ |
| Mouth | ngodoy /ŋoˈdoi/ | angal /aŋaɭ/ | indan /indan/ | ngulus /ŋulus/ | ngibiR /ŋibiʁ/ | ngoyos /ŋojos/ | kabang /kaˈbaŋ/ |
| Tooth | valisi /valisi/ | alis /aɭis/ | wali /wali/ | nipun /nipun/ | bangraw /baŋʁau/ | walis /walis/ | nipon /nipon/ |
| Tongue | lidamə /ɭidamə/ | sema /səma/ | lidam /ɭiɖam/ | mamaʼ /mamaʔ/ | rilam /ʁilam/ | sema /səmaʔ/ | dilaʼ /dilaʔ/ |
| Hand | alima /aˈlima/ | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | ima /ima/ | rima /riˈma/ | kamay /kamaj/ | longon /ˈloŋon/ |
| Foot | drapale /ɖapalə/ | — | kuy /kui/ | bantas /bantas/ | zapan /zaˈpan/ | waʼay /waʔaj/ | — |
| Heart | atay /aˈtai/ | varung /vaɾuŋ/ | kalumetan /kalumetan/ | is-ang /isaŋ/ | anem /aˈnəm/ | falokoʼ /falokoʔ/ | kosingan /koˈsiŋan/ |
| Bone | colalə /tsoɭaɭə/ | cuqelalj /tsuqəlaʎ/ | ukak /ukak/ | tuhnaz /tuhnað/ | tiran /tiʁan/ | ʼokak /ʔokak/ | tuhang /tuhaŋ/ |
| Blood | eray /əˈɾai/ | djamuq /ɟamuq/ | damuk /damuk/ | haidang /haidaŋ/ | rinang /ʁinaŋ/ | remes /rəməs/ | rahaʼ /rahaʔ/ |
| Poop | caki /tsaki/ | caqi /tsaqi/ | traʼi /ʈaʔi/ | taki /taki/ | tad /tad/ | tayiʼ /tajiʔ/ | tai /tai/ |
| Love | ababai /aˈbabai/ | nasaqaqa /nasaqaqa/ | ulaw /ulaw/ | madaidaz /madaidaz/ | — /—/ | maolah /maolah/ | ohunod /oˈhunod/ |
| Tree | cəkələ /tsəkələ/ | kasiw /kasiw/ | kawi /kawi/ | kahu /kahu/ | kasuy /kaˈsuj/ | kilang /kilaŋ/ | kayu /ˈkaju/ |
| Dog | takanaw /taˈkanau/ | vatu /vatu/ | suwan /suwan/ | asu /asu/ | wasu /waˈsu/ | wacu /watsu/ | tasu /ˈtasu/ |
| Cat | ngiyaw /ŋiˈjau/ | ngiaw /ŋiaw/ | kating /katiŋ/ | ngingiyaw /ŋiŋijaw/ | ngiyaw /ŋiˈjaw/ | posi /posi/ | tusing /ˈtusiŋ/ |
| Fish | kaʼangə /kaʔaŋə/ | ciqaw /tsiqaw/ | kuraw /kuɾaw/ | iskan /iskan/ | baut /baut/ | futing /futiŋ/ | sada /ˈsadaʔ/ |
| Bird | adhadhamə /aðaðamə/ | qayaqayam /qajaqajam/ | ayam /ajam/ | hazam /hazam/ | alam /aˈɬam/ | ayam /ˈajam/ | tombolog /tomboloɡ/ |
| Butterfly | lialivarane /ɭiaɭiˈvaɾanə/ | pepe /pəpə/ | aribanglranglrawan /aɾibaŋɭaŋɭawan/ | balikuan /balikuan/ | pulaw /pulaw/ | ʼadipangpang /ʔaðipaŋpaŋ/ | — |
| Egg | batuku /batuku/ | qecilu /qətsiɭu/ | bitrenun /biʈənun/ | lububunun /lububunun/ | tirur /tiʁuʁ/ | fitaʼol /fitaʔol/ | tontohuʼ /tontohuʔ/ |
| Bear | cumay /tsuˈmai/ | cumay /tsumai/ | trumay /ʈumaj/ | tumaz /tumað/ | tumay /tuˈmai/ | tomay /tomaj/ | bouvang /bouvaŋ/ |
| Horse | rigi /ɾiɡi/ | rigi /ɾiɡi/ | eva /əva/ | tasasikis /tasasikis/ | kebayu /kəbaju/ | efa /əfa/ | kudaʼ /kudaʔ/ |
| House | daane /daːne/ | umaq /umaq/ | ruma /ɾuma/ | lumaq /lumaq/ | lepaw /ləˈpaw/ | lomaʼ /lomaʔ/ | walai /waˈlai/ |
| Milk | mireke /miɾəkə/ | — | susu /susu/ | susu /susu/ | — | hacol /hatsol/ | gatas /ˈɡatas/ |
| Honey | valu /vaɭu/ | alju /aʎu/ | kawalruwan /kawaɭuwan/ | vanu /vanu/ | wanu /wanu/ | waneng no ʼodal /waneŋ no ʔoðal/ | — |
| Salt | timu /ˈtimu/ | qatia /qatia/ | iyam /ijam/ | hasila /hasila/ | zemiyan /zəmijan/ | cilah /tsilah/ | tusi /tusi/ |
| Wine | bava /bava/ | vava /vava/ | kutra /kuʈa/ | — | — | fadisosoʼ a ^pah /faðisosoʔ a ʔpah/ | anggur /aŋɡur/ |
| Rice | pagay /paˈɡai/ | paday /padai/ | veras /vəɾas/ | cilas /tsilas/ | beRas /bəʁas/ | felac /fəlats/ | vagas /vaɡas/ |
| Iron | adreme /aˈɖəmə/ | vatjuljayan /vatʲuʎajan/ | batulrayaw /batuɭajaw/ | ngul-a /ŋulʔa/ | balis /baˈlis/ | marad /marad/ | bosiʼ /bosiʔ/ |
| Wheel | palridingi /paɭiˈdiŋi/ | tjukutjuku /tʲukutʲuku/ | mutralatralaw /muʈalaʈalaw/ | tauntaun /tauntaun/ | krizeng /kriˈzəŋ/ | fiher /fiher/ | — |
| Silk | kadhupu /kaðupu/ | — | — | kaiku /kaiku/ | — | — | sutala /sutala/ |
| Book | hungu /huŋu/ | sapitj /sapitʲ/ | valray /vaɭaj/ | patasan /patasan/ | sudad /sudad/ | cudad /tsuðad/ | — |
| Eat | waane /ˈwaːne/ | keman /kəman/ | kuman /kuman/ | maun /maun/ | quman /quˈman/ | komaen /komaən/ | mangakan /maˈŋakan/ |
| Drink | otobi /oˈtobi/ | temekel /təməkəl/ | enpa /enpa/ | muqun /muqun/ | mimum /miˈmum/ | minom /minom/ | monginum /moˈŋinum/ |
| Sleep | waapəcə /waːpətsə/ | qemreng /qəmɾəŋ/ | alrupeʼ /aɭupəʔ/ | masabah /masabah/ | mainep /maiˈnəp/ | mafotiʼ /mafotiʔ/ | modop /modop/ |
| One | itha /iˈθa/ | ita /ita/ | sa /sa/ | tasa /tasa/ | issa /ˈissa/ | cecay /tsetsaj/ | iso /ˈiso/ |
| Two | drusa /ɖusa/ | drusa /ɖusa/ | zua /ʐua/ | dusa /dusa/ | zusa /zusa/ | tosa /tosaʔ/ | duvo /duvo/ |
| Three | tolo /tolo/ | tjelu /tʲəlu/ | telu /təlu/ | tau /tau/ | turu /tuɾu/ | tolo /tolo/ | tolu /tolu/ |
| Four | səpatə /səpatə/ | sepatj /səpatʲ/ | pat /pat/ | paat /paːt/ | spat /spat/ | sepat /səpat/ | apat /apat/ |
| Five | lrima /ˈɭima/ | lima /lima/ | lima /lima/ | hima /hima/ | rima /riˈma/ | lima /lima/ | limo /limo/ |
| Hundred | iday /idaj/ | taidai /taidai/ | saleman /saɭəman/ | saba /saba/ | Rasibu /ʁasibu/ | smoʼot /smoʔot/ | hatus /hatus/ |
| Hello | sabaw /saˈbau/ | masalu /masalu/ | marayas /maɾajas/ | uninang /uninaŋ/ | — /—/ | ngaʼay ho /ŋaʔaj ho/ | kopivosian /kopiˈvosian/ |
| Thank you | masalu /maˈsalu/ | masalu /masalu/ | kasapakan /kasapakan/ | uninang /uninaŋ/ | — /—/ | aray /araj/ | pounsikou /pounˈsikou/ |
| Good | manangi /maˈnaŋi/ | nguanguaq /ŋuaŋuaq/ | mauruway /mauɾuwai/ | masial /masial/ | nngi /nŋi/ | kapah /kapah/ | avasi /aˈvasi/ |
| New | baavanə /baːvanə/ | vaquan /vaquan/ | bekal /bəkaɭ/ | bahlu /baɬu/ | tasu /tasu/ | faluhay /faluhaj/ | vagu /vaɡu/ |
| Red | dirərələ /diɾəɾələ/ | qudjidjilj /quɟiɟiʎ/ | midarang /miɖaraŋ/ | madanghas /madaŋhas/ | tebari /təbaʀi/ | kahengangay /kahəŋaŋaj/ | aragang /araɡaŋ/ |
| White | popoli /poˈpoli/ | vuqavuqalj /vuqavuqaʎ/ | bulenan /buɭənan/ | maduhlas /maduɬas/ | busar /busaʀ/ | fohecalay /fohətsalaj/ | opurak /oˈpurak/ |
| Black | maicəlrəngə /maitsəɭəŋə/ | qucengecengel /qutsəŋətsəŋəl/ | udedem /uɖəɖəm/ | matahdung /matahduŋ/ | tengen /təŋən/ | kohtingay /kohtiŋaj/ | oitom /oitom/ |
| Green | salesese /saləsəsə/ | liljuas /ɭiʎuas/ | miraʼat /miraʔat/ | masanglav /masaŋlav/ | puli /puli/ | kangdaway /kaŋdawaj/ | otomou /oˈtomou/ |
| Blue | salesese /saləsəsə/ | cangiangia /tsaŋiaŋia/ | tremangiya /ʈəmaŋija/ | masanglav /masaŋlav/ | puli /puli/ | langdaway /laŋdawaj/ | otomou /oˈtomou/ |
| Computer | tinnaw /tinˈnau/ | tinnaw /tinnaw/ | tinnaw /tinnaw/ | tinnau /tinnau/ | tiannaw /tiannaw/ | tingnaw /tiŋnaw/ | tokud /tokud/ |
| Tea | ucia /uˈtsia/ | ucia /utsia/ | — | ucia /utsia/ | — | ociya /otsija/ | — |
| Coffee | kahwi /ˈkahwi/ | kuhi /kuhi/ | — | kapi /kapi/ | — | kohi /kohi/ | kupi /kupi/ |
| Sugar | alualu /aluˈalu/ | ljualju /ʎuaʎu/ | — | kamasia /kamasia/ | waneng /waˈnəŋ/ | waneng /waneŋ/ | gulaʼ /ɡulaʔ/ |
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