Proto-Indo-European
Proto-language (reconstructed) · historical / hidden variety
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family — the most thoroughly reconstructed proto-language in historical linguistics. Hypothesized to have been spoken c. 4500–2500 BCE on the Pontic-Caspian steppe (north of the Black Sea, the Kurgan hypothesis of Marija Gimbutas) by a semi-nomadic pastoralist society. Reconstruction is based on systematic correspondences across daughter languages from Sanskrit to Lithuanian, beginning with William Jones (1786), Bopp, Schleicher (the family-tree model and his reconstructed *fable*), Brugmann and the Neogrammarians (schwa indogermanicum), and de Saussure (coefficients sonantiques, 1878/79, later developed into laryngeal theory). Modern reconstruction posits 3 laryngeals, a vowel system built on *e/*o ablaut (with a marginal, contested *a, and *i/*u analysed as syllabic allophones of the glides *y/*w), and a complex case system.
Where it is spoken
87 core words in Proto-Indo-European
Sources
Words compared
Compared with languages in the same classification: Proto-language (reconstructed)
| Meaning | Proto-Indo-European | Mycenaean Greek | Ancient Greek | Hittite | Oscan | Proto-Tocharian | Avestan |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water | *wódr̥ /wódr̩/ | 𐀄𐀈 /hudɔːr/ | ὕδωρ /hýdɔːr/ | 𒉿𒀀𒋻 /waːtar/ | — /—/ | *wär /wər/ | 𐬁𐬞 /aːp/ |
| Fire | *péh₂wr̥ /péh₂wr̩/ | 𐀢 /pyːr/ | πῦρ /pŷːr/ | 𒉺𒄴𒄯 /paxːur/ | — /—/ | *pŭwār /puwaːr/ | 𐬁𐬙𐬀𐬭 /aːtar/ |
| Sun | *sóh₂wl̥ /sóh₂wl̩/ | 𐀀𐀸𐀪𐀍 /haːwelios/ | ἥλιος /hɛ́ːlios/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | *kāunä /kaːunə/ | 𐬵𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬭𐬆 /huwarə/ |
| Moon | *méh₁not /méh₁not/ | 𐀕 /mɛːn/ | σελήνη /selɛ́ːnɛː/ | 𒀀𒅈𒈠 /arma/ | — /—/ | *mēñē /meːɲeː/ | 𐬨𐬁𐬵 /maːh/ |
| Star | *h₂stḗr /h₂stéːr/ | 𐀀𐀳𐀫 /astɛːr/ | ἀστήρ /astɛ̌ːr/ | 𒄩𒀸𒋼𒅕𒍝 /xasterts/ | — /—/ | *scär /stsər/ | 𐬯𐬙𐬀𐬭 /star/ |
| Night | *nókʷts /nokʷts/ | — /—/ | νύξ /nýks/ | 𒅖𒉺𒀭𒍝 /ispants/ | — /—/ | *wyäṣi /wjəʂi/ | 𐬑𐬱𐬀𐬞 /xʃap/ |
| Rain | *h₁wers- /h₁wers/ | — | ὑετός /hyetós/ | 𒄭𒂊𒍑 /xeːus/ | — | *sŭwese /suwese/ | 𐬬𐬁𐬭𐬀 /ˈʋaːra/ |
| Snow | *sneygʷʰ- /sneiɡʷʰ/ | — | χιών /kʰiɔ̌ːn/ | — | — | — | 𐬬𐬀𐬟𐬭𐬀 /wafra/ |
| Wind | *h₂wéh₁n̥ts /h₂wéh₁n̥ts/ | 𐀀𐀚𐀗 /anemos/ | ἄνεμος /ánemos/ | 𒄷𒌋𒉿𒀭𒍝 /xuwants/ | — | *wyente /wjente/ | 𐬬𐬁𐬙𐬀 /ˈʋaːta/ |
| Earth | *dʰéǵʰōm /dʰéɡʲʰoːm/ | — | γῆ /ɡɛ̂ː/ | 𒋼𒂊𒅗𒀭 /teːkan/ | teras /teras/ | *tken /tken/ | 𐬰𐬀𐬨 /zam/ |
| Stone | *h₂éḱmō /h₂éḱmoː/ | — | λίθος /lítʰos/ | 𒉺𒀸𒅆𒆷𒀸 /pasːilas/ | — | — | 𐬀𐬯𐬆𐬥𐬔𐬀 /asəŋɡa/ |
| Mountain | *pérwr̥ /pérwr̩/ | — | ὄρος /óros/ | — | — | *ṣwyäle /ʂwjəle/ | 𐬔𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌 /ɡairi/ |
| Sea | *móri /ˈmori/ | — | θάλασσα /tʰálassa/ | 𒀀𒊒𒈾𒀸 /arunas/ | — | — | 𐬰𐬭𐬀𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬢𐬵 /zrajaŋh/ |
| Mother | *méh₂tēr /méh₂teːr/ | 𐀔𐀳 /maːtɛːr/ | μήτηρ /mɛ́ːtɛːr/ | 𒀭𒈾 /anːa/ | maatúf /maːtof/ | *mācer /maːtser/ | 𐬨𐬁𐬙𐬀𐬭 /maːtar/ |
| Father | *ph₂tḗr /ph₂téːr/ | 𐀞𐀳 /patɛːr/ | πατήρ /patɛ́ːr/ | 𒀜𒋫 /atːa/ | patír /patiːr/ | *āppo /aːppo/ | 𐬞𐬌𐬙𐬀𐬭 /pitar/ |
| Daughter | *dʰugh₂tḗr /dʰugh₂téːr/ | 𐀶𐀏𐀳 /tʰuɡatɛːr/ | θυγάτηρ /tʰuɡátɛːr/ | — | futír /futiːr/ | *t(ŭ)kācēr /tkaːtseːr/ | 𐬛𐬎𐬔𐬆𐬛𐬀𐬭 /duɡədar/ |
| I | *éǵh₂om /éɡʲh₂om/ | 𐀁𐀒 /eɡɔː/ | ἐγώ /eɡɔ̌ː/ | 𒌑𒊌 /uːk/ | egom /eɡom/ | *ñäś /ɲəɕ/ | 𐬀𐬰𐬆𐬨 /azəm/ |
| You | *túh₂ /túh₂/ | 𐀶 /tuː/ | σύ /sý/ | 𒍣𒅅 /tsik/ | tú /tuː/ | *tuwe /tuwe/ | 𐬙𐬏𐬨 /tuːm/ |
| We | *wéy /wéj/ | — /—/ | ἡμεῖς /hɛːmêːs/ | 𒌑𒂊𒌍 /weːs/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | 𐬬𐬀𐬉𐬨 /vaeːm/ |
| Name | *h₃nómn̥ /h₃nómn̩/ | 𐀃𐀜𐀔 /onoma/ | ὄνομα /ónoma/ | 𒆷𒀀𒈠𒀭 /laːman/ | númen /nuːmen/ | *ñēmä /ɲeːmə/ | 𐬥𐬁𐬨𐬀𐬥 /naːman/ |
| Person | *ǵʰmṓ /ǵʰmóː/ | 𐀀𐀵𐀫𐀦 /antʰrɔːkʷos/ | ἄνθρωπος /ántʰrɔːpos/ | 𒀭𒌅𒉿𒀪𒄩𒀸 /antuwaxːas/ | — | *ćāumo /tɕaːumo/ | 𐬨𐬀𐬴𐬌𐬌𐬀 /maʃja/ |
| Head | *ḱerh₂- /ḱerh₂/ | — | κεφαλή /kepʰalɛ̌ː/ | 𒄩𒅈𒊭𒅈 /xarsar/ | — | *ćäpālä /tɕəpaːlə/ | 𐬯𐬀𐬭𐬀𐬵 /sarah/ |
| Eye | *h₃ékʷ- /h₃ékʷ/ | — /—/ | ὀφθαλμός /opʰtʰalmós/ | 𒊭𒆪𒉿 /sakuwa/ | — /—/ | *ëk /ək/ | 𐬗𐬀𐬱𐬨𐬀𐬥 /tʃaʃman/ |
| Ear | *h₂ṓws /h₂oːws/ | — | οὖς /ûːs/ | 𒅖𒋫𒈠𒀭 /istaman/ | — | *kleutsān /kleutsaːn/ | 𐬔𐬀𐬊𐬱𐬀 /ɡaoʃa/ |
| Nose | *néh₂s /néh₂s/ | — | ῥίς /r̥ǐːs/ | — | — | *mele- /mele/ | 𐬥𐬁𐬵 /naːh/ |
| Mouth | *h₁óh₃s /h₁oh₃s/ | — | στόμα /stóma/ | 𒀀𒄿𒅖 /ajs/ | — | *koy /koj/ | 𐬁𐬵 /aːh/ |
| Tooth | *h₃dónts /h₃donts/ | — /—/ | ὀδούς /odǔːs/ | 𒅗𒀀𒂵 /kaːɡa/ | — /—/ | *keme /keme/ | 𐬛𐬀𐬧𐬙𐬀𐬥 /dantan/ |
| Tongue | *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s /dn̥ǵʰweh₂s/ | — /—/ | γλῶσσα /ɡlɔ̂ːsːa/ | 𒆷𒀀𒆷 /laːla/ | fangva /faŋɡwa/ | *käntwo /kəntwo/ | 𐬵𐬌𐬰𐬎𐬎𐬁 /hizuaː/ |
| Hand | *ǵʰésr̥ /ǵʰésr̩/ | 𐀐𐀁 /kʰɛːr/ | χείρ /kʰéːr/ | 𒆠𒅖𒊭𒅈 /kesːar/ | manim /manim/ | *ṣar /ʂar/ | 𐬰𐬀𐬯𐬙𐬀 /zasta/ |
| Foot | *pṓds /póːds/ | 𐀡𐀆 /podei/ | πούς /pǔːs/ | 𒉺𒋫 /pata/ | — | *peine /peine/ | 𐬞𐬀𐬛 /pad/ |
| Heart | *ḱḗr /ḱéːr/ | — /—/ | καρδία /kardía/ | 𒆠𒅕 /ker/ | — /—/ | *āräñce /aːrəɲtse/ | 𐬰𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬛 /zərəd/ |
| Bone | *h₃ésth₁ /h₃ésth₁/ | — /—/ | ὀστέον /ostéon/ | 𒄩𒀸𒋫𒄿 /xastaːi/ | — /—/ | *āyä /aːjə/ | 𐬀𐬯𐬙 /ast/ |
| Blood | *h₁ésh₂r̥ /h₁ésh₂r̥/ | — /—/ | αἷμα /hâima/ | 𒂊𒌍𒄯 /eːsxar/ | — /—/ | *yä́sar /jə́sar/ | 𐬬𐬊𐬵𐬎𐬥𐬍 /vohuniː/ |
| Poop | *kakka- /kakka/ | — | κόπρος /kópros/ | 𒊭𒀝𒋼𒀀 /sakːar/ | — | — | 𐬔𐬏𐬚𐬀 /ɡuːθa/ |
| Love | *lewbʰ- /lewbʰ/ | 𐀠𐀫 /pʰilos/ | ἀγάπη /aɡápɛː/ | 𒀀𒀸𒅆𒅀𒋻 /aːsːijatar/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | 𐬟𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀 /frija/ |
| Tree | *dóru /dóru/ | 𐀈𐀬 /doru/ | δένδρον /déndron/ | 𒋫𒊒 /taru/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | 𐬬𐬀𐬉𐬯𐬀 /waesa/ |
| Dog | *ḱwṓ /ḱwóː/ | 𐀓𐀺 /kuwɔːn/ | κύων /kýɔːn/ | 𒆪𒉿𒀭 /kuwan/ | — /—/ | *ku /ku/ | 𐬯𐬞𐬁 /spaː/ |
| Cat | — /—/ | — /—/ | αἴλουρος /aíluːros/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Fish | *dʰǵʰuHs /dʰǵʰuːs/ | — /—/ | ἰχθύς /ikʰtʰýs/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | 𐬨𐬀𐬯𐬌𐬌𐬀 /masja/ |
| Bird | *h₂éwis /h₂éwis/ | — | ὄρνις /órnis/ | — | — | — | 𐬨𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬖𐬀 /mərəɣa/ |
| Egg | *h₂ōwyóm /h₂oːwjom/ | — | ᾠόν /ɔːión/ | — | — | — | 𐬀𐬉𐬨 /aem/ |
| Bear | *h₂ŕ̥tḱos /h₂ŕ̥tḱos/ | — | ἄρκτος /árktos/ | 𒄯𒁖𒂵𒀸 /xartaɡːas/ | — | — | 𐬀𐬭𐬴𐬀 /arʃa/ |
| Horse | *h₁éḱwos /h₁ékʲwos/ | 𐀂𐀦 /ikkʷos/ | ἵππος /hípːos/ | — | — | *yäkwe /jəkwe/ | 𐬀𐬯𐬞𐬀 /aspa/ |
| House | *dṓm /dóːm/ | 𐀺𐀂𐀒 /woikos/ | οἶκος /oîkos/ | 𒂍 /peːr/ | trííbúm /triːbom/ | *wostŭ /wostu/ | 𐬥𐬨𐬁𐬥𐬀 /nmaːna/ |
| Honey | *mélit /mélit/ | 𐀕𐀪 /meli/ | μέλι /méli/ | 𒈪𒇷𒀉 /milit/ | — | *ḿətə /mʲətə/ | — |
| Salt | *séh₂ls /séh₂ls/ | — | ἅλς /háls/ | — | — | — | — |
| Wine | *wóyh₁nom /wójh₁nom/ | 𐀺𐀜 /woinos/ | οἶνος /oînos/ | 𒉿𒅀𒈾𒀸 /wijanas/ | — | — | — |
| Wheel | *kʷékʷlos /kʷékʷlos/ | 𐀀𐀗 /harmo/ | κύκλος /kýklos/ | 𒄷𒌨𒆠𒅖 /xurkis/ | — | — | 𐬗𐬀𐬑𐬭𐬀 /tʃaxra/ |
| Eat | *h₁ed- /h₁ed/ | 𐀁𐀈𐀕𐀙 /edmenai/ | ἐσθίειν /estʰíeːn/ | 𒂊𒄑𒍝𒊍𒍣 /eːtsːatsːi/ | edum /edum/ | — /—/ | 𐬑𐬬𐬀𐬭 /xwar/ |
| Drink | *peh₃- /peh₃/ | 𐀡𐀜 /piːnɔː/ | πίνειν /píneːn/ | 𒂊𒆪𒍣 /ekutsi/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | 𐬞𐬁 /paː/ |
| Sleep | *swep- /swep/ | — | καθεύδειν /katʰěu̯deːn/ | 𒊺𒌍𒍣 /sestsi/ | — | — | 𐬑𐬬𐬀𐬞 /xwap/ |
| One | *h₁óynos /h₁ójnos/ | 𐀁 /hen/ | εἷς /hêːs/ | 𒀸 /as/ | — /—/ | *sems /sems/ | 𐬀𐬉𐬬𐬀 /aewa/ |
| Two | *dwóh₁ /dwóh₁/ | 𐀉𐀺 /duwoː/ | δύο /dýo/ | — /—/ | dús /duːs/ | *wë /wə/ | 𐬛𐬬𐬀 /dva/ |
| Three | *tréyes /trejes/ | 𐀯𐀪 /tiri/ | τρεῖς /trêːs/ | 𒋼𒊑 /teri/ | trís /triːs/ | *treyä /trejə/ | 𐬚𐬭𐬁𐬌𐬌𐬊 /θraːjoː/ |
| Four | *kʷetwóres /kʷetwóres/ | 𐀤𐀵𐀫 /kʷetoro/ | τέσσαρες /téssares/ | 𒈪𒂊𒉿𒀸 /miewas/ | pettiur /pettiur/ | *ćätwerä /tɕətwerə/ | 𐬗𐬀𐬚𐬡𐬀𐬭 /tʃaθwar/ |
| Five | *pénkʷe /pénkʷe/ | — | πέντε /pénte/ | — | — | *pʼä́ñćä /pʲə́ɲtɕə/ | 𐬞𐬀𐬧𐬗𐬀 /pantʃa/ |
| Hundred | *ḱm̥tóm /ḱm̩tóm/ | — | ἑκατόν /hekatón/ | — | — | *känte /kənte/ | 𐬯𐬀𐬙𐬆𐬨 /satəm/ |
| Hello | — /—/ | — /—/ | χαῖρε /kʰâire/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Thank you | — /—/ | — /—/ | εὐχαριστῶ /eukʰaristɔ̂ː/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | — /—/ |
| Good | *h₁su- /h₁su/ | 𐀀𐀏𐀳 /aɡatʰos/ | ἀγαθόν /aɡatʰón/ | 𒀸𒋗 /asːu/ | — /—/ | — /—/ | 𐬬𐬊𐬵𐬎 /vohu/ |
| New | *néwos /néwos/ | 𐀚𐀺 /newos/ | νέος /néos/ | 𒉈𒂊𒉿𒀸 /neːwas/ | — | *ñäwe /ɲəwe/ | 𐬥𐬀𐬎𐬎𐬀 /nava/ |
| Red | *h₁rudʰrós /h₁rudʰrós/ | 𐀁𐀬𐀲𐀨 /erutʰraː/ | ἐρυθρός /erytʰrós/ | 𒈪𒄿𒋾𒅖 /miːtis/ | — /—/ | *rŭtäre /rutəre/ | 𐬯𐬎𐬑𐬭𐬀 /suxra/ |
| White | *h₂erǵ- /h₂erǵ/ | 𐀩𐀄𐀒 /leukos/ | λευκός /leu̯kós/ | 𒄯𒆠𒅖 /xarkis/ | — | *ārkwi /aːrkwi/ | 𐬯𐬞𐬀𐬉𐬙𐬀 /spaeta/ |
| Black | *kr̥snós /kr̥snós/ | — | μέλας /mélas/ | 𒁕𒀭𒆪𒅖 /dankuis/ | — | *erkent /erkent/ | 𐬯𐬁𐬨𐬀 /saːma/ |
| Green | *ǵʰelh₃- /ǵʰelh₃/ | — | χλωρός /kʰlɔːrós/ | — | — | — | — |
| Cuckoo | *gʰegʰuǵʰ- /gʰegʰuǵʰ/ | — | κόκκυξ /kókkyks/ | — | — | — | — |
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